HomeMy WebLinkAbout20040800.tiff 2-2J2-2224 S,oaPtd FROM FRUIT/AEG =NSPECTICN 719 852 -i_ Weld County Planning Department
GREELEY OFFICE
FEB 2 3 2004
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While it is not possible to completely exclude all animal life from all fresh produce production areas,
many field programs include elements to protect crops from animal damage. Growers should review
existing practices and conditions to assess the prevalence and likelihood of significant amounts of
uncontrolled deposits of animal feces coming into contact with crops. Good agricultural practices for
minimizing hazards from livestock include:
• Domestic animals should he excluded from fresh produce fields, vineyards, and orchards during
the growing season.
Depending on the operation, good management practices may include keeping livestock confined
(e.g., in pens or yards) or preventing their entry into fields by using physical barriers such as fences.
- Where necessary, growers should consider measures to ensure that animal waste from adjacent
fields or waste storage facilities does not contaminate the produce production areas.
Growers should determine whether surrounding fields and farms are used for animal production.
Growers may need to consider measures to ensure that animal waste from adjacent fields or waste
storage facilities does not contaminate the produce production areas during heavy rains, especially if
fresh produce is grown in low-lying fields or orchards. Measures might include physical barriers, such
as ditches, mounds, grass/sod waterways, diversion berms, and vegetative buffer areas.
a'
In addition, high concentrations of wildlife (such as deer or waterfowl in a field) may increase the
potential for microbial contamination. Control of wild animal populations in the field may be difficult,
especially where crop production areas are adjacent to wooded areas, open meadows, and waterways.
Federal, state, or local animal protection requirements must also be considered. However, to the extent
possible, where high concentrations of wildlife are a concern, growers should consider establishing good
agricultural practices to deter or redirect wildlife to areas with crops that are not destined for the fresh
produce market.
Helpful Resources:
The NRCS Conservation Practice Standard 317, "Composting Facility" sets out standards for on-farm
composting (USDA, SCS, December 1990) (202) 720-5157; http://www.ncg.nrcs.usda.govinhcp_2.html.
NRCS AWMFH 651.1004(F), Rynk et al., "On Farm Composting Handbook,"NRAES-54 Natural
Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service, Cooperative Extension, 152 Riley-Robb Hall, Ithaca,
NY 14853-5701 (607)255-7654.
R.T. Haug, 1993, "The Practical Handbook of Compost Engineering,"Tachnornics Publishing Co., Inc,
Lancaster, PA.
"Domestic Septage Regulatory Guidance -A Guidc to the EPA 503 Rule," EPA 832-8-92-005, Septem-
ber, 1993.
US EPA, "A Plain English Guide to the EPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule,"EPA 1832-R-93-003, Washington —
DC, 1994.
Environmental Regulation and Technology Control of Pathogens and Vector Attraction Reduction, EPA
1625/1-92/013, December 1992.
El EXHIBIT
24 I 5m
F00DSAFETY.G0V
We should write to them. Shouldn't it be illegal to place a business that transports
animals and their fecal matter, pathogens and flies around raw food storage area?
National Federal-state Food Safety Conference Release No. 0069.99 Remarks As
Prepared for Delivery by Secretary of Agriculture Dan Glickman National Federal-State
Food Safety Conference Washington, D.C. February 23, 1999
"USDA has come a long way since the 1994 reorganization which pulled our food safety
duties out of the marketing arena where there was at least an appearance of conflict of
interest. Now, we have a separate, independent food safety agency run by America's first
and only Undersecretary for Food Safety who is at USDA. We've also dramatically
expanded our food safety research agenda going after problem pathogens that affect the
entire range of foods from meats and poultry to fruits and vegetables. When this
Administration came in, you would rarely hear the word public health uttered at USDA.
Now, we have an Office of Public Health and Science, within our food safety mission,
which is headed by some of the top food safety and public health experts in the world.
These changes make a tremendous difference as we shift to a more science-based
approach.
"But we know that we alone cannot overcome today's significant challenges: new more
virulent pathogens; old pathogens finding their way onto new foods consolidation in
agriculture leading to more food being processed in one place and then shipped across the
country making it harder to pull suspect food back or even to identify a problem that's so
geographically dispersed; people eating more meals away from home; folks eating more
imported foods, particularly produce, and a growing senior population whose immune
systems are more vulnerable. "Food can be contaminated at any point from farm to table,
and it becomes crystal clear that we need our respective strengths, resources and people
power working together to create a seal of safety for consumers that covers every kind of
food. "Greater coordination is how we achieve a seamless food safety system, and that is
the ultimate goal of the President's Council on Food Safety which he created last year.
"One small way we are improving coordination at the federal level is through a new
Memorandum of Understanding that formalizes the working relationship between FDA
and USDA inspectors. Sometimes we work in the same plants, inspecting the different
products that fall under our purviews. This MOU ensures that our inspectors if they see a
potential problem that does not affect 'their food'-- make sure the right person is
informed.
"We also have a new coalition that's come together to work on interstate shipment issues.
Right now, state-inspected meat is forbidden by law from shipping across state lines.
Historically, this has been a thorny issue. Some folks thought it would never work out.
Well, I'll have you know that USDA is in the final stages of clearing legislation -- which
we hope can be considered during this Congress to free up interstate shipments. And, I'll
have you know that in this year's budget, we've asked for money to help state labs upgrade
their inspection technology,so as many states as possible are in a position to take
advantage of this breakthrough.
"Some look at all of this work and see a hodge-podge of food safety efforts. But the fact
is we at USDA are in daily collaboration with state, local and federal agencies We have a
Joint Institute for Food Safety Research which is working between federal agencies, with
the land-grant universities and others to develop a coordinated food safety research
strategy to ensure that every federal research dollar is put to its best possible use We've
more than quadrupled our food safety education budget in the past two years ... USDA
provides over$40 million to the 26 states who run their own inspection efforts covering
half of their costs We are working on partnerships with state veterinarians to develop and
encourage producers to adopt voluntarily on-farm practices that promote food safety We
helped create FORC-G, a team of federal and state food safety experts who respond to
outbreaks rnuckly. effectively, and as one team,
CDC-Foodborne and Diarrheal Diseases Branch Page 1 of 2
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Foodborne and Multistate Outbreak of
Diarrheal Diseases The Foodborne and Diarrheal Diseases Salmonella Serotype
Branch Programs Typhimurium
Branch focuses on the control and prevention of Infections Associated
► FoodNet bacterial foodborne and diarrhea) diseases, to ► inith_orinking
NARMS: Enteric prevent illness, disability and death. The Branch Unpasteurized Milk ---
► Illinois,
Bacteria does this by conducting surveillance, by Indiana, Ohio. and
investigating outbreaks, through applied Tennessee, 2002--2003
► Outbreak Response & research, and by consulting with state health MMWR: Outbreaks of
Surveillance Unit departments, food safety regulatory agencies, Salmonella Serotype
/ Safe Water System and health authorities around the world. The Enteritidis Infection
Associated
Branch identifies causes and sources of bacterial ►
PulseNet with Eating Shell Eggs-
foodborne and diarrhea) illness in order to United States, 1999-
► National Surveillance develop new prevention and control methods in 2001
for Illnesses collaborations with other public health agencies.
Foodborne and Investigations have identified major new Multistate Outbreaks of
Diarrheal Disease Salmonella Serotype
foodborne pathogens, (e.g. Escherichia coil Poona Infections
Branch programs
'
Info 0157:H7, Salmonella Enteritidis in eggs) and ► Associated with Eating
have been critical to meeting he challenge of the Cantaloupe from
► DLKoolan's Senate Mexico--United States
�—. Testimony on Food recent Latin American cholera epidemic. As a and Canada, 2000-2002
Safety result of these investigations, new prevention
efforts are being implemented to improve the Adoption the
► Reporting Foodborne p p Kauffmann-White
Illness safety of food and water both in the United Scheme for
Related Sites
States and overseas. of Salmonella serotypes/"t
'481 KB
/ Food Safety Office
Many Branch activities depend on close Public Health
collaboration between epidemiologists and the Implications of
Foodborne Pathogens in
microbiologists. Branch epidemiologists maintain ► the Farm_Environment
surveillance activities, and conduct outbreak ppt file
investigations and other special studies. They
frequently consult with State and local health
department officials concerning possible
outbreaks or other public health issues. Branch
microbiologists maintain expertise in a variety of
bacterial pathogens, developing new methods to
identify and characterize them. Branch
microbiologists advise and support public health
laboratories in each State, and are involved in
many outbreak investigations. The branch is the
national reference laboratory for botulism,
campylobacteriosis, cholera, intestinal E. coli
infections, listerlosis, salmonellosis, shigellosis,
and other similar infections. With this expertise
and the ongoing applied research, new
pathogens are discovered, and new methods
make our public health system better.
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/foodborne/index.htm 2/23/2004
USDA/NHS Fact Sheet: FORC-G - Foodborne Outbreak Respons... Page 1 of 2
Fact Sheet
U.S. Department of Agriculture
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
FORC-G
Many outbreaks of foodborne illness cross geographic or jurisdictional lines,
requiring close inter-agency cooperation. FORC-G, the Foodborne Outbreak
Response Coordinating Group, brings together federal, state, and local
agencies to develop a comprehensive, coordinated, national foodborne illness
outbreak response system.
Specifically, FORC-G will
* increase coordination and communication among these agencies and
organizations;
* help guide the efficient use of resources and expertise during an
emergency;
* and better prepare the United States to meet new and emerging
threats to the food supply.
FORC-G is co-chaired by the Department of Agriculture's Under Secretary for
Food Safety and the Department of Health and Human Services' Assistant
Secretary for Health. Other FORC-G members include representatives of the
* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;
' * Food and Drug Administration;
* Food Safety and Inspection Service;
* Environmental Protection Agency;
* Association of Food and Drug Officials;
* National Association of City and County Health Officials;
* Association of State and Territorial Public Health Laboratory Directors;
* Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists; and
* National Association of State Departments of Agriculture.
In January, 1997, President Clinton directed the Secretary of Agriculture, the
Secretary of Health and Human Services, and the Administrator of the
Environmental Protection Agency to identify specific steps to improve the
safety of the food supply. Their May 1997 report to the President recommended
the creation of FORC-G.
May 22, 1998
Clinton-Gore Administration Accomplishments in Food Safety
October, 1997. President announces new initiative to enhance FDA oversight ove
and develop guidance on good agricultural and manufacturing practices for fru
.-. October, 1997. Administration announces public-private partnership to promote
education, that includes the "Fight BAC" campaign .
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/-irdltpforc-g.html 2/23/2004
USDA/HHS Fact Sheet: FORC-G - Foodborne Outbreak Respons... Page 2 of 2
May, 1997. President announces comprehensive new initiative to improve the saf
food supply -- "Food Safety from Farm to Table"--detailing a $43 million food
program, including measures to improve surveillance, outbreak response, educa
January, 1997. President announces new Early-Warning System to gather critical
help stop food-borne disease outbreaks quickly and to improve prevention syst
January, 1997. Administration requires generic E.coli testing for all meat and
plants and Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures.
August, 1996. President signs Safe Drinking Water Act of 1996. The law requir
systems to protect against dangerous contaminants like crytosporidium, and gi
know about contaminants in their tap water.
August, 1996. President signs Food Quality Protection Act of 1996, which strea
pesticides by FDA and EPA and puts important new public-health protections in
children.
July, 1996. President announces new regulations that modernize the nation's me
inspection system for the first time in 90 years. The HACCP systems approach
science-based controls and microbiological testing directly targeted at E. co
Salmonella.
December, 1995. Administration issues new rules to ensure the safety of seafoo
regulatory approach.
October, 1994. Administration declares E. coli O157:H7 an adulterant in raw gr
initiates a nationwide sampling program in federally inspected plants and ret
ground beef.
March, 1994. Administration requires safe handling and cooking labels on raw m
products.
This is a mirror of the page at
HTTP://www.usdagow80/news/releases/1998/051fsis
Memorandum of Understanding
Home
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov&Ird/tpforC-g.html 2/23/2004
FDA/CFSAN Bad Bug Book Campylobacter jejuna Page 1 of 5
Bad U.S. Food & Drug Administration
a Center for Food Safety& Applied Nutrition
Bug Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms 4
Book and Natural Toxins Handbook
Campylobacter jejuni
Education CDC/MMWR NIH/PubMed
1. Name of the Campylobacter jejuni Is a Gram-negative slender, curved,
Organism: and motile rod. It is a microaerophilic organism, which
Campylobacter means it has a requirement for reduced levels of oxygen.
jejuni(formerly It is relatively fragile, and sensitive to environmental
known as stresses (e.g., 21% oxygen, drying, heating,
Campylobacter disinfectants, acidic conditions). Because of Its
fetus subsp. microaerophilic characteristics the organism requires 3
jejuni) to 5% oxygen and 2 to 10% carbon dioxide for optimal
growth conditions. This bacterium is now recognized as
an important enteric pathogen. Before 1972, when
methods were developed for its isolation from feces, it
was believed to be primarily an animal pathogen causing
abortion and enteritis in sheep and cattle. Surveys have
shown that C.jejuni is the leading cause of bacterial
diarrhea% illness in the United States. It causes more
disease than Shigella spp. and Salmonella spp.
combined.
Although C.jejuni is not carried by healthy individuals in
the United States or Europe, it is often isolated from
healthy cattle, chickens, birds and even flies. It is
sometimes present in non-chlorinated water sources
such as streams and ponds.
Because the pathogenic mechanisms of C.jejuni are still
being studied, it is difficult to differentiate pathogenic
from nonpathogenic strains. However, at appears that
many of the chicken isolates are pathogens.
2. Name of Campylobacteriosis is the name of the illness caused by
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/-mow/chap4.html 2/23/2004
- FDAICFSAN Bad Bug Book Campylobacter jejuni Page 2 of 5
Disease: C.Muni. It is also often known as campylobacter
enteritis or gastroenteritis.
3. Major C.JeJuni infection causes diarrhea, which may be watery
Symptoms: or sticky and can contain blood (usually occult) and fecal
leukocytes (white cells). Other symptoms often present
are fever, abdominal pain, nausea, headache and muscle
pain. The illness usually occurs 2-5 days after ingestion
of the contaminated food or water. illness generally lasts
7-10 days, but relapses are not uncommon (about 25% of
cases). Most infections are self-limiting and are not
treated with antibiotics. However, treatment with
erythromycin does reduce the length of time that
infected individuals shed the bacteria in their feces.
The infective dose of C.Jejuni is considered to be small.
Human feeding studies suggest that about 400-500
bacteria may cause illness in some individuals, while in
others, greater numbers are required. A conducted
volunteer human feeding study suggests that host
susceptibility also dictates infectious dose to some
degree. The pathogenic mechanisms of C.jejuni are still
not completely understood, but it does produce a heat-
labile toxin that may cause diarrhea. C.jejuni may also
be an invasive organism.
4. Isolation C.jejuniis usually present in high numbers in the
Procedures: diarrhea' stools of individuals, but isolation requires
special antibiotic-containing media and a special
microaerophilic atmosphere (5% oxygen). However, most
clinical laboratories are equipped to isolate
Campylobacter spp. If requested.
5. Associated C.Jejunifrequently contaminates raw chicken. Surveys
Foods: show that 20 to 100% of retail chickens are
contaminated. This is not overly surprising since many
healthy chickens carry these bacteria in their intestinal
tracts. Raw milk is also a source of infections. The
bacteria are often carded by healthy cattle and by flies
on farms. Non-chlorinated water may also be a source of
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/-mow/chap4.html 2/23/2004
FDA/CFSAN Bad Bug Book Campylobacter jejuna Page 3 of 5
infections. However, properly cooking chicken,
pasteurizing milk, and chlorinating drinking water will kill
the bacteria.
6. Frequency of C.japans the leading cause of bacterial diarrhea in the
the Disease: U.S. There are probably numbers of cases in excess of
the estimated cases of salmonellosis (2- to
4,000,000/year).
7. Complications are relatively rare, but infections have
Complications: been associated with reactive arthritis, hemolyticuremic
syndrome, and following septicemia, infections of nearly
any organ. The estimated case/fatality ratio for all C
jeJuni infections is 0.1, meaning one death per 1,000
cases. Fatalities are rare in healthy individuals and
usually occur in cancer patients or in the otherwise
debilitated. Only 20 reported cases of septic abortion
induced by C.jejuni have been recorded in the literature.
Meningitis, recurrent colitis, acute cholecystitis and
Guillain-Barre syndrome are very rare complications.
S. Target Although anyone can have a C.Jejuna infection, children
Populations: under 5 years and young adults (15-29) are more
frequently afflicted than other age groups. Reactive
arthritis, a rare complication of these infections, is
strongly associated with people who have the human
lymphocyte antigen B27 (HLA-627).
9. Recovery Isolation of C.Muni from food is difficult because the
from Foods: bacteria are usually present in very low numbers (unlike
the case of diarrheal stools in which 10/6 bacteria/gram
is not unusual). The methods require an enrichment broth
containing antibiotics, special antibiotic-containing
plates and a microaerophilic atmosphere generally a
microaerophilic atmosphere with 5% oxygen and an
elevated concentration of carbon dioxide (10%). Isolation
can take several days to a week.
10. Selected Usually outbreaks are small (less than 50 people), but in
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/-mow/chap4.html 2/23/2004
FDA/CFSAN Bad Bug Book Campylobacter jejuni Page 4 of 5
Outbreaks: Bennington, VT a large outbreak involving about 2,000
people occurred while the town was temporarily using an
non-chlorinated water source as a water supply. Several
small outbreaks have been reported among children who
were taken on a class trip to a dairy and given raw milk
to drink. An outbreak was also associated with
consumption of raw clams. However, a survey showed
that about 50% of infections are associated with either
eating inadequately cooked or recontaminated chicken
meat or handling chickens. It is the leading bacterial
cause of sporadic (non-clustered cases) diarrhea)
disease in the U.S.
In April, 1986, an elementary school child was cultured
for bacterial pathogens (due to bloody diarrhea), and C.
jejuni was isolated. Food consumption/gastrointestinal
illness questionnaires were administered to other
students and faculty at the school. In all, 32 of 172
students reported symptoms of diarrhea (100%), cramps
(80%), nausea (51%), fever (29%), vomiting (26%), and
bloody stools (14%). The food questionnaire clearly
implicated milk as the common source, and a
dose/response was evident (those drinking more milk
were more likely to be ill). Investigation of the dairy
supplying the milk showed that they vat pasteurized the
milk at 135*F for 25 minutes rather than the required
145°F for 30 minutes. The dairy processed surplus raw
milk for the school, and this milk had a high somatic cell
count. Cows from the herd supplying the dairy had C.
jejuniin their feces. This outbreak points out the
variation in symptoms which may occur with
campylobacteriosis and the absolute need to adhere to
pasteurization time/temperature standards.
Although other Campy/obacterspp. have been implicated
in human gastroenteritis (e.g. C. kiddie, C.
hyointestinaiis), it is believed that 99% of the cases are
caused by C.jejuni.
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/-mow/chap4.html 2/23/2004
• FDA/CFSAN Bad Bug Book Campylobacter jejuni Page 5 of 5
Information regarding an outbreak of Campylobacter in
New Zealand is found in this MMWR 40(7):1991 Feb 22.
For more information on recent outbreaks see the
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports from CDC.
11. Education: The Food Safety Inspection Service of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture has produced a background
document on Campylobacter.
12. Other A Loci index for genome Campyiobacterjejuni is
Resources: available from GenBank.
CDC/MMWR
The CDC/MMWR link will provide a list of Morbidity and Mortality Weekly
Reports at CDC relating to this organism or toxin. The date shown is
the date the item was posted on the Web, not the date of the MMWR.
The summary statement shown are the initial words of the overall
document. The specific article of interest may be just one article or
item within the overall report.
NIH/PubMed
The NIH/PubMed button at the top of the page will provide a list of
research abstracts contained in the National Library of Medicine's
MEDLINE database for this organism or toxin.
mow@cfsan.fda.gov
January 1992 with periodic updates
Bad Bug Book
Foods Home I FDA Home I Search/Subject Index I Disclaimers & Privacy Policy
Accessibility/Hejp
Hypertext last updated by mow/day 2003-JAN-07
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/-mow/chap4.htm1 2/23/2004
httPliwwwseeSmall
usda.gov/sbir/9
9phase2.htm Business
Innovation
Research (SBIR)
USDA/
SBIR
PHASE
II
TECH
NICAL
ABSTR
ACTS
FISCA
L
YEAR
1999
Listed below
by topic area
are technical
abstracts
(summaries
of research)
of Phase II
projects
funded under
the USDA
Small
Business
Innovation
Research
Program for
Fiscal Year
1999. These
abstracts
include the
TITLE OF RESEARCH: A HIGH TECHNOLOGY VERMICOMPOSTING
REACTOR: PRODUCT TESTING AND COMMERCIALIZATION
COMPANY: OREGON SOIL CORPORATION
1324 BEAVER LANE
OREGON CITY, OR 97045
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR:DR. KEITH FLETCHER
TOPIC AREA: PLANT PRODUCTION AND PROTECTION(BIOLOGY)
GRANTED AMOUNT: $230,000/24 MONTHS
Disposal of organic wastes, including animal, food garden and industrial wastes, is
expensive and can create environmental problems. High technology vermicomposting
systems can convert such wastes into valuable horticultural growth media or soil
amendments. The value of these to the horticultural industry was demonstrated clearly in
Phase I research. The Oregon Soil Corporation has operated a continuous flow reactor
that will process 1000 tons of waste a year for six years.
Oregon Soil Corporation proposes the following research in Phase II.
Improvements of the high technology reactor design, operation and efficiency.
Assessment and minimization of human pathogen, plant disease and weed seed carry-
over during the vermicomposting process.
Field plant growth trails of annual and perennial crops to ascertain optimum rates of
addition and placement of vermicomposts for field crops.
Obtaining maximum economic returns from vermicomposts.
• Quality standards for vermicomposts to maintain minimum product variability.
• Formulation, processing and amending vermicomposts for marketing.
• Market survey to identify major profitable outlets for sale of vermicomposts.
During Phase II research, Oregon Soil Corporation plans to build two more reactors for
its own operations and supply reactors to five commercial organizations who have agreed
to adopt the technology.
ANTICIPATED RESULTS/POTENTIAL COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS OF
RESEARCH
The major barriers to full commercial development of high technology continuous-flow
automated vermicomposting reactors have been: (i) possible transmission of human and
plant pathogens in vermicomposts, (ii) lack of data establishing the commercial value of
vermicomposts for horticulture and as soil amendments, and (iii) need for methods of
formulating and marketing vermicomposts for maximum utilization and profits, together
with development of most profitable markets. The Phase I and II research answers these
needs and together with possible improvements to the reactor system and management
should facilitate large-scale commercial development.
TITLE OF RESEARCH: RAPID DETECTION OF ESCHERICHIA COLT 0157:H7
COMPANY: IMMUNOLOGICAL ASSOCIATES OF DENVER
717 YOSEMITE CIRCLE
DENVER, CO 80220
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR:DR. ROBERT T. MCCALMON
TOPIC AREA: FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION
GRANTED AMOUNT: $230,000/24 MONTHS
Escherichia coil 0157:H7 is an emerging cause of foodborne illness first identified as an
etiological agent in 1982. There is a need for low complexity, rapid (less than four hours)
detection method capable of being performed on site at food processing plants in
association with Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Plans (HACCP). Ideally, this test
should be simple to perform and interpret, be low cost, and be a sensitive and specific
method for rapid detection of pathogenic E. coil 0157:117. Methods will be developed for
the detection of viable E. coil 0157:H7 contamination of meat carcass or ground beef.
This consists of specimen collection from these materials, extraction and capture of
0157:H7 RNA, isothermal amplification, and visual lateral flow detection. The final assay
will be incorporated into a self contained integrated particle (SCIP) device that is easy to
use, does not require expensive instrumentation, and can readily be performed on site.
ANTICIPATED RESULTS/POTENTIAL COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS OF
RESEARCH
Rapid and specific detection of viable pathogen contamination provides a means of
monitoring food processing and effectiveness of in plant decontamination procedures.
Results will be available in a time frame that permits detection of contamination prior to
distribution. This should avert large recalls. The ultimate result will be a safer food supply
and reduced incidence of foodborne infections. The successful development of the
proposed assay has tremendous commercialization potential. There are approximately 37
million beef carcasses processed annually. In addition, E. coil 0157:H7 also contaminates
water, milk, apple cider, and vegetables.
- FDA/CFSAN Bad Bug Book Factors Affecting the Growth of Mic... Page 1 of 4
U.S. Food & Drug Adnini tration
Bad reenter for Food Safety&Applied Nutrition
Bug Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms
Book
and Natural Toxins Handbook
Factors Affecting the Growth of Microorganisms in
Foods
Food is a chemically complex matrix, and predicting whether, or how fast,
microorganisms will grow in any given food is difficult. Most foods contain
sufficient nutrients to support microbial growth. Several factors encourage,
prevent, or limit the growth of microorganisms in foods, the most important
are aw, pH, and temperature.
aw (Water Activity or Water Availability). Water molecules are loosely
oriented in pure liquid water and can easily rearrange. When other
substances (solutes) are added to water, water molecules orient
themselves on the surface of the solute and the properties of the solution
change dramatically. The microbial cell must compete with solute
molecules for free water molecules. Except for Staphylococcus aureus,
bacteria are rather poor competitors, whereas molds are excellent
competitors.
a varies very little with temperature over the range of temperatures that
support microbial growth. A solution of pure water has an aw of 1.00. The
addition of solute decreases the a to less than 1.00.
Water Activity of Various NaCI Solutions
Percent NaCI (wN) Mold Water Activity (aw)
0.9 0.15 0.995
1.7 0.30 0.99
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• FDA/CFSAN Bad Bug Book Factors Affecting the Growth of Mic... Page 2 of 4
3.5 0.61 0.98
7.0 1.20 0.96
10.0 1.77 0.94
13.0 2.31 0.92
16.0 2.83 0.90
22.0 3.81 0.86
The a of a solution may dramatically affect the ability of heat to kill a
bacterium at a given temperature. For example, a population of Salmonella
typhimariam is reduced tenfold in 0.18 minutes at 60°C if the aw of the
suspending medium is 0.995. If the aw is lowered to 0.94, 4.3 min are
required at 60°C to cause the same tenfold reduction.
An a value stated for a bacterium is generally the minimum a which
supports growth. At the minimum aw, growth is usually minimal, increasing
as the a increases. At a values below the minimum for growth, bacteria
do not necessarily die, although some proportion of the population does die.
The bacteria may remain dormant, but infectious. Most importantly, aw is
only one factor, and the other factors (e.g., pH, temperature) of the food
must be considered. It is the interplay between factors that ultimately
determines if a bacterium will grow or not. The aw of a food may not be a
fixed value; it may change over time, or may vary considerably between
similar foods from different sources.
pH: (hydrogen ion concentration, relative acidity or alkalinity). The pH range
of a microorganism is defined by a minimum value (at the acidic end of the
scale) and a maximum value (at the basic end of the scale). There is a pH
optimum for each microorganism at which growth is maximal. Moving away
from the pH optimum in either direction slows microbial growth.
A range of pH values is presented here, as the pH of foods, even those of a
similar type, varies considerably. Shifts in pH of a food with time may reflect
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• FDA/CFSAN Bad Bug Book Factors Affecting the Growth of Mic... Page 3 of 4
microbial activity, and foods that are poorly buffered (i.e., do not resist
-- changes in pH), such as vegetables, may shift pH values considerably. For
meats, the pH of muscle from a rested animal may differ from that of a
fatigued animal.
A food may start with a pH which precludes bacterial growth, but as a result
of the metabolism of other microbes (yeasts or molds), pH shifts may occur
and permit bacterial growth.
Temperature. Temperature values for microbial growth, like pH values, have
a minimum and maximum range with an optimum temperature for maximal
growth. The rate of growth at extremes of temperature determines the
classification of an organism (e.g., psychrotroph, thermotroph). The
optimum growth temperature determines its classification as a thermophile,
mesophile, or psychrophile.
INTERPLAY OF FACTORS AFFECTING MICROBIAL GROWTH IN FOODS:
Although each of the major factors listed above plays an important role, the
interplay between the factors ultimately determines whether a
microorganism will grow in a given food. Often, the results of such interplay
are unpredictable, as poorly understood synergism or antagonism may
occur. Advantage is taken of this interplay with regard to preventing the
outgrowth of C. botulinwn. Food with a pH of 5.0 (within the range for C.
botulinum) and an a of 0.935 (above the minimum for C. botulinum) may not
support the growth of this bacterium. Certain processed cheese spreads
take advantage of this fact and are therefore shelf stable at room
temperature even though each individual factor would permit the outgrowth
of C. botulinum.
Therefore, predictions about whether or not a particular microorganism will
grow in a food can, in general, only be made through experimentation. Also,
many microorganisms do not need to multiply in food to cause disease.
Factors affecting growth of pathogens in foods.
pH values of some foods
January 1992
mow@cfsan.fda.gov
http://iwww.cfsan.fda.gov/-mow/aPP3.html 1/27/2004
www.foodsafety.gov - Food Safety News and Safety Alerts Page 1 of 2
� 4 e
aGateway From Fsl ?Tat�•I≥ � ` - "' �"
at
News & Food Safety Alerts
44
Consumer Federal Government Agencies
Advice
Kids, Teens, • CDC: Centers for Disease Control & Prevention
& Educators (Foodborne Illness)
Industry o Food Safety Activities
Assistance
Repo tfinesses & o News and Media Relations
Product Complaints o Current Health Related Hoaxes and Rumors
Foodborne
Pathogens • CFSAN: Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition,
National Food FDA
Safely Programs
Federal & State (Seafood, Fruits, Vegetables, Shell Eggs, and all
Gov't Agencies other Non-Meat Foods)
Other o What's New
Topics o Product Recalls, Alerts, and Warnings
Search &
Site Index • EPA: Environmental Protection Agency
(Pesticides & Water)
o EPA News and Events
o Office of Pesticide Programs News
o Office of Water News
• FSIS: Food Safety & Inspection Service, USDA
(Meat, Poultry & Processed Egg Products)
o What's New?
o Product Recalls
State and Local Government Web Sites
• Health Warnings (Department of Health Services,
California)
• Recalls and Alerts (compiled by Environmental
http://www.foodsafety.gov/-fsg/fsgnews.html 1/26/2004
FDA/USDA US Food Safety System Country Report Annex I: Re... Page 1 of 6
Food and Drug Administration
U.S. Department of Agriculture
March 3, 2000
United States Food Safety System
(Table of Contents)
References for the U.S. Food Safety System
Country Report
Annex I to the United States' National Food Safety
System Paper
Introduction
Food Safety Gateway http://www.foodsafety.gov/
National Food Safety h_ttp:/Ivm.cfsan.fda.gov/-dms/fs-toc.html
Information Network
Public/Private Partnership for http //www.fightb_a_c.org/
Food Safety Education
Department of Health and http://www.hhs.gov/
Human Services (DHHS)
Food and Drug http://www.fda.gov/
Administration (FDA)
Centers for Disease Control http://www.cdc.gov/
and Prevention (CDC)
U.S. Department of http://www.usda.gov/
Agriculture (USDA)
Food Safety and Inspection http://www.fsis.usda.gov/
Service (FSIS)
Animal and Plant Health http://www.aphis.usda.gov/
Inspection Service (APHIS)
Environmental Protection http://www.epa.ov/
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FDA/USDA US Food Safety System Country Report Annex I: Re... Page 2 of 6
Agency (EPA)
U.S. Codex http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OA/codex/index.htm
Links to All 50 State http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OPHS/stategov.htm
Departments of Public Health http://www.fda.gov/ora/fed state/default.htm
and Agriculture
Links to Food Safety http:/Ifoodsafe.ucdavis.edu/fshttplinks2.htm1
Agencies and Universities
Examples of National Consumer Organizations:
American Council on Science http //www.acsh.org/
and Health
Center for Science in the http://www.cspinet.org/
Public Interest
Consumer Federation of http://www.consumerfed.org/
America
Consumers Union http://www.consumer.org/
Examples of Industry Organizations:
American Meat Institute http://www.meatami.org/
Biotechnology Industry http://www.bio.org/
Organization
Grocery Manufacturers of http://www.gmabrands.com/
America
National Food Processors http://www.nfpa-food.org/
Organization
A. Laws and Implementing Regulations
The Constitution http://icweb.loc.gov/globaijjudiciary.html
of the United
States
Legislative http://www.house.gov/
Branch http://www.senate.gov/
http://lcweb.loc.gov/global/legislative/congress.html
Executive Branch http://www.whitehouse.gov/
http://icweb.loc.gov/global/executiveMed.html
Judicial Branch http://www.uscourts.gov/
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FDA/USDA US Food Safety System Country Report Annex I: Re... Page 3 of 6
http://icweb.loc.gov/global/judiciary.html
Federal Food, http://www.fda.gov/opacom/laws/fdcact/fdctoc.htm
Drug, and
Cosmetic Act
(FFDCA)
Federal Meat http://www.fda.gov/opacom/laws/meat.htm
Inspection Act
(FMIA)
Poultry Products http://www.fda.gov/opacom/laws/pitryact.htm
Inspection Act
(PPIA)
Egg Products http://wwvv.fda.gov/opacom/laws/eggact.htm
Inspection Act
(EPIA)
Food Quality http://www.fda.gov/opacom/laws/foodqual/fgpatoc.htm
Protection Act
(FQPA)
Public Health http://www.fda.gov/opacom/laws/phsvcact/phsvcact.htm
Services Act
(PHSA)
Administrative http://www.fda.gov/opacom/laws/adminpro.htm
Procedures Act
(APA)
Federal Advisory http://www.fdaAov/opacom/laws/fedadvca.htm
Committee Act
(FACA)
Freedom of http://www.epa.gov/epahome/law s.htm
Information Act
(FOIA), The Clean
Water Act,
The National
Environmental
Protection Act,
The Safe Drinking
Water Act,
Federal
http:l/www.foodsafety.govt-fsglfssyst3.html 1/27/2004
nap:nwwwaooasalety.gvvr-ragnasystaslum' sic nwv4
FDA/USDA US Food Safety System Country Report Annex I: Re... Page 4 of 6
Insecticide and
Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA):
B. Risk Analysis and the United States Precautionary Approach
National Food http://www.foodsafety.gov/-dms/fsreport.html
Safety Initiative
Report, 1997
Hazard Analysis http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/-ird/haccp.html
Critical Control
Point (HACCP)
USDA/FDA HACCP http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodborneMbindex/009.htm
Training Programs
and Resources
Database
Risk Assessment http://www.foodsafety.gov/-fsg/fsgrisk.html
Site
Center for http://www.fda.gov/cvm/fda/maPpgs/fsiintro.html
Veterinary
Medicine, FDA
Campylobacter in http:I/www.fda.govlcvm/fdalmagpgs/ralrisk.html
Poultry Risk
Assessment
*National http://www.nationalacademies.org/nas/nas/nashome.nsf
Academy of
Sciences
"The Use of Drugs http://www.nap.edu/catalog/5137.html
in Food Animals:
Benefits and
Risks"
"Ensuring Safe http://www.nap.edu/catalog/6163.html
Food : From
Production to
Consumption"
"Enhancing the http://www.nap.edu/catalog/9453.html
Regulatory
http:/hwww.foodsafety.gov/-fsg/fssyst3.html 1/27/2004
FDA/USDA US Food Safety System Country Report Annex I: Re... Page 5 of 6
Decision-Making
r Approval Process
for Direct Food
Ingredient
Technologies,
Food Forum,
Institute of
Medicine"
"Understanding httpffibooks.nap.edu/books/030905396X/html/index.html
Risk: Informing
Decisions in a
Democratic
Society"
World Health http://www.who.org/
Organization
(WHO)
Food and http://www.fao.org/
Agriculture
Organization (FAO)
Office of http://www.oie.int/
international
Epizootics (OIE)
Annex "Precaution http://vvww.foodsafety.gov/-fsessystem.html
in U.S. Food Safety http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/-dms/fs-toc.html
Decision Making"
C. Dealing with New Technologies, Products, and Responding to Problems
Emerging http://wvvw.cdc.govincidod/dbmd/programs.htm
Infections
Program (EIP)
Antimicrobial http://www.fda.gov/cvmlfda/mappgs/antitoc.html
Resistance
Foodborne Illness http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/foodborn.htm
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/-mow/foodborn.html
Foodborne Illness http://www.nal.usda.qov/fniclfoodbornelfoodborn.htm
Education
Information Center
httpJ/www.foodsafety.gov/&fsg/fssyst3.html 1/27/2004
FDA/USDA US Food Safety System Country Report Annex I: Re... Page 6 of 6
•
D. Transparency
Access to the httpa/www.access.gpo.gov/tiara/cfr/index.html
Code of Federal
Regulations
Office of the http://wvvw.ustr.qov/
United States
Trade
Representative
(USTR)
World Trade http://www.wto.orgl
Organization
(W TO)
E. System Accountability
Presidential http://www.whitehouse.gov/WH/html/handbook.html
Oversight
House and Senate http://thomas.loc.gpv/
Committees
Oversight
General h_t_tp://www.gao.govl_
Accounting Office
U.S. Courts http://www.uscourts.gov/
In the interest of showing how food safety is discussed within civil society,
websites of organizations other than the U.S. government are included in
this Annex. The U.S. government is not responsible for and does not
s. .caaariiy endorse the content of those non-U.S. 3ove—eazmt t .. ..,.�Si.....
See the Table of Contents for adds!t ar..! U.S. Fatal Safety System
documents
FDA Home I USDA Home
Hypertext updated by cjm/dms 2000-MAR-22
httpJlwww.foodsafety.gov!-fsg/fssyst3.html 1/27/2004
GreenTruck: Do I Need A Storm Water Permit in the Trucking L.. Page 1 of 3
w 1 TRANS•URCE
02/2000 Doc. No.3075
"Cr. Do I Need A Storm Water Permit In
Tiarckc.Nfsa The Trucking Industry?
SERVICES3 The Office of Compliance Fact Sheet Series
�► NP,A. What Is The NPDES Storm Water Program?
► Training & Through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
jnPere��-aces
► , ; ,,,-t (NPDES) program, EPA established phased NPDES requirements
► r:,,. us to control storm water discharges that could adversely affect
e wrap the quality of waters of the United States. The storm water
► He:p program consists of two phases:
► Phase I, currently being implemented, requires permits
for storm water discharges associated with an industrial
activity, construction activities involving at least five
acres, and separate storm water systems serving large-
and medium-sized communities (i.e., those with over
100,000 inhabitants).
► Phase II was published in December 1999 and becomes
effective February 7, 2000. It will address discharges
from small municipalities and construction sites not
covered under the Phase I program.
Is My Trucking Facility Included In The Phase I
Program?
Phase I includes 11 categories of facilities or activities with
"storm water discharges associated with industrial activity" (40
CFR 122.26). The term "storm water discharges associated with
industrial activity" is defined as the discharge from any
conveyance (e.g., pipe, ditch, etc.) which is used for collecting
and conveying storm water and which is directly related to
manufacturing, processing or raw materials storage areas at an
industrial plant. For the Phase I categories, the term includes,
but is not limited to, storm water discharges from industrial
plant yards, immediate access roads and rail lines used or
traveled by carriers of raw materials, and areas where industrial
activity has taken place in the past and significant materials
remain and are exposed to storm water.
One of the eleven categories is transportation facilities which
have vehicle maintenance shops, equipment cleaning
operations, or airport de-icing operations. This category
includes the following trucking industry Standard Industrial
Classification (SIC) codes:
SIC 42 (except 4221-25) Motor Freight and Warehousing
SIC 43 U.S. Postal Service
SIC 5171 Petroleum Bulk Stations and Terminals.
Therefore, if your trucking facility is classified in either SIC
code 42, 43, or 5171 and your facility has vehicle maintenance
shops, equipment cleaning operations, or airport de-icing
operations, you are required to have a Phase I storm water
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GreenTruck: Do I Need A Storm Water Permit in the Trucking I.... Page 2 of 3
permit. This typically includes facilities providing local or long-
distance trucking, transfer, and/or storage services. Examples
of these services are hauling by dump truck, trucking timber,
contract mail carriers, furniture moving, garbage collection
without disposal, over-the-road trucking, long distance trucking,
and freight trucking terminals.
What Kind Of Permit Do I Need?
Phase I facilities must be covered by an NPDES permit
regardless of whether they discharge to a municipal separate
storm sewer system or directly to waters of the United States.
Storm water permits provide a mechanism for monitoring the
discharge of pollutants from these facilities to waters of the
United States and for establishing appropriate controls.
If your facility has not yet obtained an NPDES permit for your
storm water discharges, then you have two options to comply.
You can submit (1) an individual permit application; or (2) a
Notice of Intent (NOI) to be covered under a general permit
(baseline or multi-sector). Whether your facility applies for an
individual permit or the general permit, you will be required to
meet certain requirements including (1) developing a Storm
Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP), (2) monitoring (if
required), and (3) training.
Individual Storm Water Permit Applications
If your facility has storm water discharges and did not
participate in the group application, or did not obtain coverage
under the general permit by March 1996, you must obtain and
submit an individual permit application consisting of Form 1
(General Information) and Form 2F (Application for Permit to
Discharge Storm Water Discharges Associated with Industrial
Activity). These forms can be obtained from and submitted to
the permitting authority. Form 2F requires you to submit a site
drainage map, potential pollutant sources, and quantitative
testing data of pollutant sources. You are required to submit an
individual permit application 180 days before starting a new
discharge.
General Storm Water Permit Applications -
Baseline Or Multi-Sector
If EPA is the permitting authority, your facility may be
permitted under one of two types of general permits - a
baseline permit or a multi-sector permit. Both permits require
the development of a SWPPP and periodic discharge monitoring.
EPA has finalized baseline general permits in those states
without NPDES authorization. More recently, EPA finalized the
multi-sector general permit which provides coverage for 20
specific industries in the states and territories without NPDES
authorization. Check with your EPA Regional office for more
information on these permits.
Note: The baseline general permit expired on September
1997 and is being terminated by EPA. However, EPA is currently
temporarily reissuing the baseline general permit NOI. The
multi-sector permit expires in 2000 but is constantly being
revised.
Where Do I Get A Storm Water Permit?
As of January 2000, EPA has authorized 41 states and 1
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territory to administer the NPDES program, including the
storm water program (except the Virgin Islands). Where permit
authority has not been delegated to the state or territory, you
must apply for permits directly from EPA rather than the state
authority. EPA has not delegated authority to the following
states and territories: Alaska, Arizona, District of Columbia,
Florida, Idaho, Maine (currently seeking delegation),
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Puerto Rico,
Pacific Territories, Texas (currently acquiring delegation), and
Federal Tribal Reservations. Contact your permitting authority,
either EPA or your state, to find out how to obtain a permit
application and whether the individual or general permit is
required. Complete the application as directed.
Note: Avoid delays! Submit permit applications well in
advance of any deadlines.
Additional Information:
For more information on the NPDES storm water program,
please consult EPA's Overview of the Storm Water Program, EPA
833-R-96-008, June 1996, or call EPA's Office of Water
Resource Center at (202) 260-7786.
GREENTRUCK HOME I AIR & FUEL I PREVENTION I REFERENCE I SPILLS I STORAGE I WASTE I WATER
NEWS I COMMUNITY I TRAINING & CONFERENCES I CT STAFF I CONTACT US I SITE MAP I HELP
Copyright American Trucking Associations, All Rights Reserved Read ATA's Y2K Statement
httpdhvww.greentruck.comhvater/stonnwater/3075.html 2/10/2004
Chapter 8
Surface Disposal of Domestic Septage
Domestic septage is defined in the Part 503 regulation velop a description of how it was achieved. The certifi-
as the liquid or solid material removed from a septic cation and the description must be kept for 5 years.
tank, cesspool, portable toilet,Type III marine sanitation If vector attraction reduction is not achieved by alkali
device, or a similar system that receives only domestic
0e sewage (househpld, non-commercial, non-industrial addition (as described above), the owner or operator of
sew ge)(see Sec[3.2.2).Table 3-2 in C ph per 3TisTs the surface disposal site must achieve vector attraction
me characteristic of septage. reduction by injecting or incorporating the domestic sep-
sis
tage into the soil, or by covering it with soil daily. Celli-
The most common, and usually most economical, fication that all these requirements have been met and
method of domestic septage disposal is land application a description of how they were met must be developed
(e.g., land spreading, irrigation, overland flow)which is and maintained for 5 years. (Figure 8-1 shows the re-
not addressed in this manual. Disposal at an existing quired certification statement.)
virestawalertietrnent plant is a viable and economical
option if the plant is reasonably close to the source and If domestic septage is placed in a monofill (such as a
has adequate processes and capacity to handle the trench), surface impoundment, dedicated disposal site
domestic septage. or other sludge-only surface disposal site, its disposal is
covered by the requirements in the Part 503 regulation
Surface disposal practices for domestic septage include for such disposal sites(except for requirements for pol-
placement in monofills(trenches), lagoons, and munici- lutant limits and pathogen reduction).These requirements
pal solid waste landfills. are discussed further in Chapters 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, and 10.
If domestic septage is placed in a municipal solid waste
8.1 Regulatory Requirements for landfill, its disposal is covered by the requirements of
Surface Disposal of Domestic 40 CFR Part 258 for the disposal of non-hazardous
Septage waste. These requirements are discussed in Section
3.4.3. Note that because of the requirement that waste
The regulatory requirements for the surface disposal of pass the Paint Filter Liquids Test (see Section 3.4.3),
domestic septage are not as extensive as those for domestic septage must be dewatered so that it contains
sewage sludge. Neither the pollutant limits nor the no free liquid before it can be placed in a municipal solid
pathogen requirements of Part 503 apply if domestic waste landfill.
septage is placed on an active sewage sludge unit.The
regulation does, however, specify requirements for vec- Compliance with federal regulations governing domestic
tor attraction reduction for domestic septage that is sur- septage does not ensure compliance with state require-
face disposed. ments.State programs may not define domestic septage
the same way as the federal regulations. In addition,
Two alternatives are available for placing domestic sep- state requirements may be more restrictive or may be
tage on an active sewage sludge unit(see Options 9-12, administered in a different manner from the federal regu-
Table 3-9 in Chapter 3). One alternative is to achieve lation. It is important to check with the state seamy
vector attraction reduction by raising the pH of the do- coordinator to find out about state requirements.
mestic septage to 12 with alkali addition for 30 minutes,
and maintaining the pH at 12 or greater for 30 minutes 8.2 Domestic Septage Disposal Lagoons
without adding more alkali. If pH reduction is used to
achieve vector attraction reduction, each container of The use of lagoons for septage disposal is a common
domestic septage must be monitored for compliance.The alternative in rural areas.As discussed in Section 7.5.3,
person who placed the domestic septage on the active if the lagoon is not part of the treatment process then
sewage sludge unit must then certify that vector attrao- these lagoons are considered surface disposal sites
tion reduction was achieved (see Figure 8-1) and de- under the Part 503 rule.
157
• An individtaal placing domestic septage on a surface disposal site must maintain
the following ratification statement for 5 years:
"I certify.mid=penalty of law,that the vector attraction redaction
regavements in§503.33(b)(12)bavelhave not been met.This determination
has been made under my direction and supervision in accon)ace with the
system designed to ensue that qualified personnel properly gather and
evaluate the information used to determine that the vector amsction
requirements have been met.lam aware that ti nre am significant penalties
for false certification,including the possibility of fine and imprisonment"
The owner or operator of the surface disposal site must maintain the following
certification statement for 5 years:
1 certify,under penalty of law,that the management practices in§503.24
and the vector attraction reduction requirements in[insert§503.33(b)(9)
through§503.33(b)(l 1)when anc of those requirements is mot]hevelbeve
not been met.This determination has been made under my direction and
supervision in accordance with the system designed to ensure that qualified
persotmel properly gather and evaluate the information used to determine
dm the management practices[and the vector attraction requirements,if
appropriate]have been met.t am aware that mere are significant penalties
for false certification including the potability of fine and imprisonment"
Sig nature Date
Figure 8-1. Certifications required when domestic septage is placed In a surface disposal site(U.S. EPA, 1994).
Domestic septage disposal lagoons are usually a maxi- trench to remain uncovered to permit as many solids to
mum of 1.8 m (6 ft) deep and allow no effluent or soil settle, as well as liquids to evaporate and leach out, as
infiltration. These lagoons require placement of domes- possible. Then the solids, as well as some bottom and
tic septage in small incremental lifts (15 to 30 cm, or 6 sidewall material,are removed and the trench is reused
to 12 in.)and sequential loading of multiple lagoons for (U.S. EPA, 1984).
optimum drying. Most are operated in the unheated
anaerobic or facultative stage. Odor problems may be Additional information on monofills is presented in Sec-
reduced by placing the lagoon inlet pipe below liquid lion 7.5.2.
level and having water available for haulers to immedi-
ately wash any spills into the lagoon inlet line(U.S.EPA, 8.4 Codisposal at Municipal Solid Waste
1994).Section 7.5.3 presents detailed information about Landfill Unit
lagoon design.
Design information for codisposal at a municipal solid
8.3 Monofills (Trenches) for Domestic waste landfill is presented in Section 7.6; codisposal
Septage Disposal operation is discussed in Section 9.3.3.
Domestic septage is placed sequentially in multiple 8.5 References
trenches in small lifts, 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in.), to
minimize drying time. When the trench is filled with 1. U.S. EPA. 1994. A plain English guide to the EPA 503 biosolids
domestic septage, 0.6 m (2 ft) of soil should be role. EPN832/R-93/003.
placed as a final covering,and new trenches opened. 2. U.S. EPA. 1984. Handbook: Septage treatment and disposal.
An alternate management technique allows a filled EPA/625/6-84/009.Cincinnati,OH(Octube,).
158
317-1
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION SERVICE
CONSERVATION PRACTICE STANDARD
COMPOSTING FACILITY, (No.)
Code 317
DEFINITION: facility and its operation as appropriate to
minimize the occurrence of equipment hazards
This is a treatment component of an agricultural and biological agents during the composting
management system for the biological process.
stabilization of organic material.
Facility Siting. All composting facilities,
PURPOSE: including portable rotary drum composters,shall
be located according to the minimum siting buffer
To reduce the pollution potential of organic distances contained in ADEM Administrative
agricultural wastes to surface and ground water. Code Chapter 335.6-7,as amended(AFO/CAFO
Rule).
CONDITIONS WHERE PRACTICE APPLIES:
applies The bottom elevation of the composting facility
This practice where: shall be above the seasonal high water table and
Organic waste material isgenerated by on soils with an acceptable permeability that does
• r9 not allow materials.to c ontaminatellie around
agricultural production or pr. essing; y, Production swine and poultry in-vessel
• A cam tin facili is a component of a composters shall have a 4-in. minimum thickness
Pce 9 tY po concrete Dad un decihe primary and secondary
planned agricultural waste managementDins_ Evaluate other site-paving needs in terms
system;and, of effects of equipment operation on wearability,
soil compaction, and the potential for
• A composting facility can be constructed, contamination from compost and petrol products.
operated, and maintained without polluting air
and/or water resources. Ideally,compost facilities should be kniggl
outeideO11021glains. However,if site
CRITERIA: restrictions require location within a floodplain,
they shall be protected from inundation or
General Criteria Applicable to all Purposes damage from a 25 year flood event,or larger.
Laws and Regulations. The installation and Locate compost facilities so prevailing winds and
operation of the composting facility shall comply landscape arrangement,elements such as building
with all federal, state,and local laws, rules,and dorsandprotect landforms,visual and vegetation minimize
regulations,and to rules and regulations odors and the resource.
established by the state veterinarian's office, state Runoff. Divert surface runoff from outside
and local health departments,and the Alabama drainage areas around the compost
Department of Environmental Management g facility and.
Pa 9 Collect runoff from the compost and utilize
(ADEM). Prior approval from the state or dispose of it properly. Evaluate the effects of
veterinarian's office must be obtained before changed infiltration conditions on groundwater
using compost off the farm of origin. Compost recharge,and evaluate changes in volumes and
from single-stage composters and mini- rates of runoff caused by the location of the
composters may be spread only on the farm of operation. Properly manage movement of
origin. The producer will be responsible for organic material, soluble substances, and
securing the necessary permits to install the substances attached to solids carried by runoff.
composter and for properly managing the unit on
a daily basis. Carbon-Nitrogen Ratio. Calculate the amounts
of the various ingredients to establish the desired
Safety. Safety and personal protection features carbon-nitrogen ratio(C:N)of the mix to be
and practices shall be incorporated into the composted. The initial compost mix shall result in
a carbon to nitrogen ratio between 25:1 and 40:1.
Conservation practice standards are reviewed periodically,and updated if needed. To obtain the NRCS,AL
current version of this standard,contact the Natural Resources Conservation Service. March 2003
317-2
Facility structural elements such as permanent
Compost with a greater carbon to nitrogen ratio bins,concrete slabs, and roofs shall meet the
can be used if nitrogen immobilization is not a requirements of Alabama NRCS Conservation
concern or if composting organic materials that Practice Standard, Waste Storage Facility-
decompose at a high rate(or are highly unstable) Code 313.
with associated high odor production.
Moisture. Provision shall be made for
Where more than two ingredients are to be maintaining adequate moisture in the compost
blended,the two main ingredients are to be used mix throughout the compost period within the
in the analysis for the desired C:N and mixed range of 40 to 65 percent(wet weight basis). The
accordingly. Adding up to 50 percent by weight of composting process may become inhibited when
other ingredients to improve workability and air moisture falls below approximately 40 percent.
movement is permissible as long as the C:N of Water used for moisture control must be free of
the added ingredient does not exceed the target deleterious substances.
C:N of the compost.
Carbon Source. A dependable source of Production swine and poultry in vessel
carbonaceous material with a high carbon to composting shall be done under a cover to
nitrogen ratio(C:N)shall be stored and available prevent excess moisture from accumulating in
by the the compost and contamination of runoff
to mix with nitrogen rich waste materials.
composting material.
Bulking Materials. Add bulking materials to the Temperature of Compost Mix. Manage as necessary to enhance aeration. pe po the
compost to attain and then maintain the internal
The bulking material may be the carbonaceous temperature for the duration required to meet
material used in the mix or a non-biodegradable management goals.
material that is salvaged at the end of the
compost period. If a non-biodegradable material When the management goal is to reduce
is used, provision shall be made for its salvage. pathogens,the compost shall attain a
temperature greater than 130°F for at least
Odor. Develop a compost mix that encourages 5 days as an average throughout the compost
aerobic microbial decomposition and avoids mass. These temperature and time criteria may
nuisance odors. be achieved during either primary or secondary
composting stages or as the cumulative time of
Select carbonaceous material that, when blended
with the nitrogenous material,will result in the greater than 130°F in both stages.
desired pH. The blended material should have a Tuming/Aeration. The frequency of
pH at or slightly below neutral for best odor tuming/aeration shall be appropriate for the
control. Where odors do not present a problem, composting method used and to attain the
a pH of S to 9 is acceptable, but strong ammonia desired amount of moisture removal and
and amine related odors may be present during temperature control while maintaining aerobic
the first 2 weeks.
degradation.
Mortality Composting. When composting the
carcasses of animal mortalities,all body parts Pile Configuration. Compost piles for
must be covered in least 6 in.of carbonaceous windrowed and static piles should be triangular to
material at all times. This applies to any stage of parabolic in cross-sectional form with a base
any composting process,except rotary drum width to height ratio of about 2 to 1. Increased
composters. For rotary drum composters,follow surface area favorably affects evaporation and
the criteria given herein. natural aeration and increases the area exposed
to infiltration.
Facility Size and Type. Establish the number
and size of the composter units on the basis of Composting Period. Continue the composting
locally determined normal animal loss rates and process long enough for the compost mix to
the amount of raw material planned for active reach the stability level where it can be safely
composting plus space required for curing. stored without undesirable odors. It shall also
possess the desired characteristics for its use,
Selection of the composting facility/method shall such as lack of noxious odor,desired moisture
be based on the availability of raw material,the content, level of decomposition of original
desired quality of final compost,and the components,and texture. The compost period
equipment,labor,time,and land available. may involve primary and secondary composting
as required to achieve these characteristics.
NRCS,AL
March 2003
317-3
Visual inspection and temperature measurements This formula gives reasonable results for a flock
will provide needed evaluation of compost status. life up to 75 days. For a flock life over 75 days,
If raw body parts remain after a composting cycle, provide primary bin volume for at least 30 days of
the material should be turned, covered with at mortality in a minimum of two primary bins.
least 6 in.of the carbonaceous material,and Provide secondary volume as needed for the
allowed to undergo another composting cycle. storage period required. The resource engineer
Test the finished compost as appropriate to should be contacted for guidance in these
assure that the required stabilization has been situations.
reached.
Single-staged composters and mini-composters
Storage. Provide properly designed storage may be used only for flocks of up to 45,000
facilities sized for the appropriate storage period. roasters, 60,000 broilers, or 120,000 Cornish
Protect composted material from the weather by hens without approval of the state conservation
roofs or other suitable covers. Structures must engineer(SCE). Single-stage composters and
meet the requirements of Alabama NRCS mini-composters will not be used for any birds of
Conservation Practice Standard,Waste Storage 5 lbs.or more.
Facility-Code 313.
Table 1 provides suggested values to use for
Use of Finished Compost Land application of various types of birds and provides the design
finished compost shall be in accordance with factors used to determine first stage volume of
Alabama NRCS Conservation Practice Standard, multiple stage composting units. The design
Nutrient Management-Code 590. factor is multiplied by the number of birds initially
placed on farm to find first stage volume.
Additional Criteria for Poultry Anticipated mortality is included in this factor.
Process. The composting process uses a The total volume is divided by the volume of an
simple mixture of dry poultry manure, poultry individual composting bin to determine the
carcasses,wheat straw,and water. (Other number of bins required.
carbon sources such as peanut hulls,cotton seed
hulls, etc., may be used in place of straw. Poultry No. of bins=Total 1st stage volume
manure cake has also been found to be an Volume of single bin
acceptable material in lieu of dry poultry manure
and wheat straw.) The components of the Bins for multiple stage composting are typically
mixture must be added according to guidelines to 5 ft. high, 5 ft.deep, and 10 ft. across the front.
ensure proper growth of the bacteria and fungi However,depth and width may be adjusted to
needed for decomposition. Litter used for accommodate the equipment on hand. The
composting should be managed to ensure volume required in the second stage will be equal
adequate bacterial counts and temperatures are to the first stage,as minimum. In north Alabama,
present. Guidance for operation and the second stage should have at least twice the
maintenance of poultry compost facilities can be first stage volume to provide winter storage,
found in NRCS Alabama Guide Sheet unless additional storage is otherwise provided.
No.AL 317, Composting Poultry Mortality. Mini-composters are to be 4 feet x 4 feet x 4 feet.
Design. For meat-producing poultry(broilers, Each bin of the mini-composter shall be built with
Cornish hens,etc.)the volume required for each -in.space between each horizontal board.
stage of multiple stage composting units is: Commercially supplied single stage units may be
up to 5 ft. in one horizontal dimension.
Nb x M x Wb x VF = Vol(CF) Alabama engineering form,AL-ENG-25F,
Nd
provides details on the methodology used in
Where: Nb=number of birds in flock sizing facilities and may be used for other types
M =mortality rate as a decimal of poultry. Table 2 provides a quick summary of
Wb=weight of birds at maturity the number of bins required in the first stage of a
VF=volume factor(2.5 for two-stage multi-stage broiler composting unit using
composters, 3.75 for single-stage 5 ft.x 5 ft. x 10 ft. bins.
and mini-composters)
Nd=number of days of flock life
NRCS, AL
March 2003
317-4
Table 1. Poultry Data and Multiple Stage Composter Design Factors
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Avg. Multiple Stage
Poultry Loss Flock Cycles Mkt. Composter
Tvoe Rate Life Per Yr. Wqt. Design Factor
(%) (wks.) (lbs.) (cu.ft./bird)
Broiler 4.5-5.5 6-7 5.5-6 4.2 0,0125
Roaster
Females 3 6 4 4.0 0.0071
Males 8 10 4 7.5 0.0214
Laying Hens 14 60-65 0.9 4.5 0.0035
Breeding
Hens 10-12 60-65 0.9 7-8 0.0048
Males 20-25 40-45 1.1 10-12 0.0238
Turkey
Female 5-6 13-14 3 14 0.0196
Turkey Lg. Tom 9 16-16.5 3 24 0.0468
Feather Prod. 12 18-18.5 2.5 28-32 0.0741
*((b)as decimal/(c)(days)]x(e)x 2.5=(f)
Volume of 1"Stage=(f)x No. of animals
Table 2. Number of First Stage Composter Bins Required for Broilers Using 5 ft. x 5 ft.x 10 ft. bins.
No. of Lbs.dead/day Volume in No. of bins
Broilers On day 42* 1°'Stage** in 1"Stacie*'*
—lbs.— —cf.-
20,000 100 250 1
40,000 200 500 2
60,000 300 750 3
80,000 400 1,000 4
100,000 500 1,250 5
120,000 600 1,500 6
140,000 700 1,750 7
160,000 800 2,000 8
180,000 900 2,250 9
200,000 1,000 2,500 10
'Assumes mature weight of 4.2 lbs.;flock loss of 5%.
**(Total weight loss near maturity)x(2.5 cf/lb.dead wgt)=cu.ft.of storage required.
***Bin dimensions: 5 ft. x 5 ft. 10 ft.or 250 cf.
NRCS,AL
March 2003
317-5
Additional Criteria for Swine primary bin floor space per 150 lbs. of annual
mortality.
Process. Composting of swine involves larger
carcasses and bones which are harder to degrade • Volume recommendation-Provide 1 cu.ft.of
than poultry. Composting times will be longer and primary composter bin space per 20 lbs. of
the compost mix more critical to give good results. annual mortality for pigs heavier than 100 lbs. -
Guidance for operation and maintenance for an stacked 5 ft.deep. This equals 1 sq.ft.of
in-vessel swine compost facility can be found in primary bin floor space per 100 lbs. of annual
Alabama NRCS Guide Sheet No.AL 317A- mortality.
Composting Swine Mortality. The suggested
recipes in the guide sheet shall be carefully followed • Average bin size= 10 ft. x 6 ft.x 5 ft.deep=
until it is determined that the process is working 60 sq.ft.or 300 cubic feet. Properly managed,
well. All composting operations should be prepared this should handle about 2,250 lbs.of
to dispose of catastrophic mortality according to lightweight carcasses per compost cycle or
Alabama NRCS Guide Sheet No.AL 3178- 9,000 lbs. per year(4 cycles). For heavier
Emergency Disposal of Dead Animals. feeders, sows, boars,or gilts, it may handle only
Design. To allow for catastrophic mortality, 1,500 lbs. per cycle or 4,500 lbs. per year
additional capacity should be allowed. The following (3 des).
design parameters are suggested as the minimum
requirements with carefully managed bins: Growing-Finishing Unit.Assumptions:
Mortality Averages 3%
• One cubic foot of primary composter should Growout from 40 lbs.to 240 lbs.per hog
accommodate about 5 to 8 lbs.of swine 2.75 batches per year(17 weeks in,2 weeks out)
carcass at any given time. Nursery pigs and
small feeder pigs can be loaded into a bin at Average death loss per batch:
7 to 8 lbs. per cubic foot. Heavy feeders and 2,625 lbs.of carcass per 625 animals finished
sows should be loaded into primary bins at 4,200 lbs.of carcass per 1000 animals finished
about 5 lbs. per cubic foot.
Average death loss per year:
• The secondary bin size should not be less than 7,220 lbs.of carcass per 625 head capacity
the primary volume,and should be twice the 11.550 lbs.of carcass per 1000 head capacity
primary volume for winter storage in north
Alabama, unless additional storage is otherwise Number of standard size primary bins:
2 bins minimum,regardless of facility size
provided.
1.6 bin per 625 head capacity
• Properly managed primary bins loaded with 2.6 bins per 1000 head capacity
small pigs and lightweight feeder carcasses can
be turned into the secondary bin in 60 days or Middle or P2 Unit. Assumptions:
less after the last carcass is placed in the bin. Mortality averages 3%
Allowing 90 days per cycle for filling and Growout from 10 lb.to 601b.per hog
composting,each bin can be filled 4 times per 7 batches per year(6 weeks in,2 weeks out)
year with the lighter carcasses. Average death loss per batch:
• Heavy feeders and sows may have to stay more 1,680 lbs.of carcass per 1600 animals finished
than 60 days in the primary bin. Allowing Average death loss per year
120 days per cycle for filling and composting, 11,760 lbs.of carcass per 1600 head capacity
each bin can be filled no more than 3 times per
year. Number of standard size primary bins:
2 bins minimum,regardless of facility size
• Volume recommendation-Provide 1 cu.ft.of 1.3 bins per 1,600 head capacity
primary composter bin space per 30 lbs.of
annual mortality for pigs up to about 100 lbs. -
stacked 5 ft.deep. This equals 1 sq.ft.of
NRCS,AL
March 2003
317-6
Farrowlnu unit. Assumptions: volume requirements for a specific flock can vary
Sow and boar mortality averages 3% greatly from this design volume. In case of larger
Average weight all sows,boars,and gins=375 lbs. than normal losses,excess material may be
19 live pigs born per sowlgift per year removed from the rotary drum, stockpiled on a
concrete pad,and covered with at least 6 in.of
2 dead pigs born per sow/gift per year
Pig mortality averages 3% carbonaceous or bulking material. The material
weight=3 to 40 lbs. shall be protected from rain,and will then finish the
Pig
composting process as a static pile.
Average death loss per year per 100 sows: Operation. The rotary drum composter shall be
1200 lbs.sows,boars,gilts operated and maintained in accordance with the
600 lb
s.lbs.fetus manufacturer's instructions. On initial start-up,the
1200 lbs.pigs drum is filled to one-fourth capacity with
Number of standard size primary bins: carbonaceous material. Mortalities and an
2 bins minimum,regardless of facility size approximately equal volume of carbonaceous
1 bin per 150 sow rapac y material are added and the drum rotated until the
contents are thoroughly mixed. The drum shall not
Additional Criteria for Rotary Drum Composting be filled above approximately 75%of its total height
in order to insure a thorough and complete mixing of
Process. Rotary drum composting uses a drum the contents when the drum is rotated. The
partially filled with composting material that can be moisture content and temperature of the compost
rotated by mechanical means. As organic material should be monitored daily during the composting
is added to the drum,the drum is rotated to mix the period. Appropriate steps should be taken as
new ingredients and add oxygen to the existing needed to maintain the moisture content and
ingredients. This results in a faster composting temperature at the required levels.
process than with other methods. Due to the short
cycle time required when used for production Additional Requirements. The state veterinarian
poultry, it is critical that the compost mix be will issue a permit for the use of a rotary drum
managed for optimum temperatures. This may
require keeping a pile of material"hot"for use in the composter in Alabama,and the following are
drum. This may be done by mixing various required during its operation:
carbonaceous and bulking materials at the proper
moisture in a pile outside the drum so that it • A daily worksheet shall be kept showing date,
preheats to 130°F or more before being added to age of birds, number of dead birds added,
the drum composter. pounds of dead birds added,temperature inside
composter as well as outside temperature,
Design. Rotary drum design capacity is determined
by the actual weight of mortalities during the cycle • After the flock is sold,final mortality shall be
divided by the design drum loading rate of 3 lbs.of placed in composter and rotated each day for
mortality per gallon of total drum capacity. When three days,and then it shall rest for three days.
used for poultry,the actual weight of mortalities can If the internal temperatures have been sufficient
be determined from producer records,or the (above 130°F),compost can then be spread,
following formula may be used for determining
composter capacity: • The compost shall be spread on the grower's
premise. If it cannot,a permit shall be obtained
Nb x Mx Wb x WF = Vol(Gal) from the state veterinarian or animal industries
3 office for an alternative solution,and
Where: Nb= number of birds in flock • The rotary drum composter itself must be
M =modality rate as a decimal maintained either under a suitable shelter or on
Wb=weight of birds at maturity a minimum 4 in.thick concrete pad extending
WF =weight factor(use 0.25 for birds with 4 ft. in front and back of the unit, or both.
Wb of 4.5 lbs.or less, 0.33 for
larger birds) The state veterinarian's office may be contacted to
obtain the permit application form and worksheets.
This design capacity may be used to select the size
and number of rotary drum units required. Actual
NRCS,AL
March 2003
317-7
Additional Criteria for Other Animals and Food for a specified period of time. Correct proportions of
Processing Wastes the various compost ingredients are essential to
minimize odors and to avoid attracting flies, rodents,
Other animals and food processing wastes from and other small animals.
agricultural operations can successfully be
composted. Guidance from the state environmental Carbon Source. A dependable source of
engineer on design criteria shall be used in the carbonaceous material must be available. The
design. material should have a high carbon content and
high carbon to nitrogen ratio(C:N). Wood chips,
CONSIDERATIONS: sawdust, peanut hulls, straw, corn cobs, bark, peat
moss,and well-bedded horse manure are good
Types. Four types of composting operations are sources of carbon.
covered in this standard:aerated windrows, static
piles, in-vessel,and rotary drum. Aerated windrows Moisture Control Large amounts of water are
are more suited to large volumes of organic material needed during the composting process because
that are managed by power equipment used to turn operating temperatures evaporate water. A source
the composting material periodically. Periodic of water should be available for compost pile
turning re-aerates the windrows, promoting the moisture control from start-up through completion.
composting process. Proper moisture facilitates the composting process
and helps control odors. A mixture that is too wet
Organic material in static piles is initially mixed to a will become anaerobic, creating potentially offensive
homogeneous condition and not turned again conditions.
throughout the composting process. Static pile
material must have the proper moisture content and Equipment Needs. Appropriate equipment should
bulk density to facilitate air movement throughout be available for mixing,turning, and hauling
the pile. Forced air might be necessary to facilitate composted material and carbonaceous material.
the composting process. Appropriate long stem thermometers should be
available for monitoring the temperatures during the
In-vessel composting in a totally enclosed structure composting process.
is performed on a blended organic material under
conditions where temperature and air flow are Bulking Materials. Bulking materials may be
strictly controlled. In-vessel composting also added to enhance air flow within the composting
includes naturally aerated processes where organic material. This will result in higher composting
materials are layered in the vessel in a specified temperatures and a more efficient composting
sequence. Layered, in-vessel materials are usually process. Piles that are too compact will inhibit the
turned once to facilitate the process. Vessel composting process. The carbonaceous material
dimensions must be consistent with equipment to can be considered as a bulking agent. Where it is
be used for management of compost. desirable to salvage carbonaceous material,
provisions for removing the material, such as
Rotary drum composting uses a round,enclosed screening, should be made.
drum which can be mechanically rotated. The unit
may be stationary or portable for direct field Management. Composting operations require
spreading. Rotation of the drum aids in aeration close management. Management capabilities of
and mixing of the material and facilitates the the operator and availability of labor should be
composting process. If properly managed, this assessed as part of the planning and implementing
method results in faster decomposition and a process.
smaller volume of compost than other methods. Economics. Benefits associated with the ultimate
Process. Composting is accomplished by mixing use of the composted material should be compared
an energy source(carbonaceous material)with a to the capital expenditure and operating costs of the
nutrient source(nitrogenous material)in a composting operations. In addition to cost return,
prescribed manner to meet aerobic microbial benefits can include environmental protection,
metabolic requirements. The process is performed improved handling,disposal of dead poultry and
under specific moisture and temperature conditions other farm animal mortalities,odor control, and
reduced need for storage volume.
NRCS, AL
March 2003
317-8
Effects of Composting on Water Quality. PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS:
Composting should improve water quality by
eliminating alternative methods of disposal that Plans and specifications for organic composting
could pollute surface and ground water. Also, since facilities shall be in keeping with this standard and
poultry compost is higher in organic nitrogen than shall describe the requirements for applying the
broiler litter, the potential for leaching and loss in practice to achieve its intended purpose. Plans and
surface runoff will be reduced. The bacteria and specifications include construction plans, drawings,
viruses associated with the carcasses and the job sheets,construction specifications, narrative
manure are essentially destroyed, making compost statements in conservation plans,or other similar
a safer fertilizer than plain broiler litter. Caution documents. For single-stage and mini-composters,
must still be taken to prevent spreading near the conservation plan will include a statement
surface waters because the high level of organic indicating that the owner/operator has been advised
matter, if allowed to enter water, could cause of possible problems with this type of system,
oxygen depletion problems. including fly and odor problems, consolidation and
difficulty of removal of the material, high manual
Rotary Drum Composting. Protect the compost labor requirements, and rain entering the system. A
within the unit from excess moisture during rainfall written operation and maintenance plan shall be
by providing some form of cover for the unit. developed with full knowledge and input of the
Consider the equipment required to operate a owner-operator and included with the documents
portable unit during both the composting process provided to the owner-operator. The Construction
and the land application of the compost. Specification for Alabama NRCS Conservation
Practice Standard,Waste Storage Facility-
Consider the type and availability of material to be Code 313,will be utilized for the construction of a
used in the composting recipe. Maintain a"hot' compost facility.
litter pile to facilitate the process.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE:
Consider the method to be used to uniformly spread
the compost from a stationary rotary drum unit. Temperature. For best results,operating
temperatures of the composting material should be
Facility Siting. All composting facilities, including 130°F to 170°F once the process has begun.
portable rotary drum composters,should be located Operating temperatures should be reached within
according to the Minimum Distance Requirements about 7 days and remain elevated for up to 14 days
for Waste Storage Facilities in Alabama NRCS to facilitate efficient composting. The material
Conservation Practice Standard,Waste Storage should remain at or above 110°F for the remainder
Facility-Code 313. of the designated composting period. For best
results, temperatures inside a rotary drum
General. Develop an initial compost mix with a composter should be maintained above 130°F
carbon to nitrogen ratio of at least 30:1 to reduce during the composting process.
most offensive odors.
If temperatures fall significantly during the
Minimize odors and nitrogen loss by selecting composting period and odors develop,or if the
carbonaceous material that,when blended with the material does not reach operating temperatures,
nitrogenous material, provides a balance of investigate piles for moisture content, porosity,and
nutrients and porous texture for aeration. thoroughness of mixing. Compost managed at the
Maximize solar warming by aligning piles north to required temperatures will favor destruction of any
south configured with moderate side slopes. pathogens and weed seeds.
Uncovered outdoor composting may require Excessive temperature in the composted material of
collecting runoff water from the area for storage and 190°F or more can indicate the potential for a fire to
land application. Storage structures must meet the develop. To prevent fires in litter or compost piles,
requirements of Alabama NRCS Conservation follow the recommendations in Alabama NRCS
Practice Standard,Waste Storage Facility- Guide Sheet No.AL 313-Preventing Fires in Litter
Code 313. In order to prevent pending and Storage Structures.
sogginess, do not locate piles(windrows)across the
slope.
r-.
NRCS,AL
March 2003
317-9
Aeration. Heat generated by the process causes Land Applying the Compost. Compost should be
piles to dehydrate. As the process proceeds, analyzed for nutrient content and land applied in
material consolidates,and the volume of voids accordance with Alabama NRCS Conservation
through which air flows decreases. Materials Practice Standard, Nutrient Management-
selected for the composting mix should provide for Code 590.
adequate air movement throughout the composting
process. Periodically turning the piles and Other Animal and Food Processing Wastes. The
maintaining proper moisture levels for windrows and operation and maintenance of composting facilities
static piles will normally provide adequate aeration. for other dead animals and for food processing
wastes from agricultural operations can be similar to
Nutrients. Keep compost well aerated to minimize those for poultry and swine. Engineers should
nitrogen loss by denitrification. Keep pH at neutral receive guidance from the state environmental
or slightly lower to avoid nitrogen loss by engineer for specific operation and maintenance
ammonification. High amounts of available carbon requirements.
will aid nitrogen immobilization. Phosphorus losses
will be minimized when the composting process is REFERENCES
managed according to the requirements of this
standard. Include compost nutrients in nutrient ADEM Administrative Code Chapter 335-6-7,as
management plans and determine the effects of use amended(AFO/CAFO Rule).
and management of nutrients on the quality of NRCS Alabama Conservation Practice Standards
surface and ground water as related to human and Nutrient Management-Code 590
livestock consumption. Waste Storage Facility-Code 313
Waste Utilization-Code 633
Testing Needs. Test compost material for carbon, Alabama NRCS Guide Sheets
nitrogen, moisture,and pH if compost fails to reach Composting Poultry Mortality-AL 317
Composting Swine Mortality-AL 317A
desired temperatures or if odor problems develop.
The finished compost material should be Emergency in rif Dead Animals-AL 317B
periodically tested for constituents that could cause AlabamaAEGNRCS-Worksheet kg Forms
plant phytotoxicity as the result of application to AL-ENG-25E- Requirementsto Determine Litter
crops. Composted materials that are prepared for Production and Storage for
the retail market willrequire testing for labeling Poultry AL-ENG-25F
ons.
AL-ENG-25F-Worksheet to Determine Size of
purposes. Dead Bird Composter/Incinerator
Alabama Poultry Waste Management-Waste
Maintaining the Structures. The compost Utilization and Facilities Design Workbook.
structure should be inspected at least twice each Arkansas Swine Composting Guidelines.
year when portions of the facility are empty. NEH Part 651,Agricultural Waste Management
Replace any damaged wooden parts or hardware. Field Handbook,Chapter 10.
Roof structures should be examined for structural
integrity. Walls of composters that are constructed
with lumber treated to a 0.25 pcf retention level may
need replacing during the life of the structure.
NRCS,AL
March 2003
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ENSURING FOOD SAFETY
Panel Manager-Dr. Susan Sumner,Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Program Director- Dr.Etta Saltos
Safety of food products is of paramount importance to the producer,processor,distributor,and consumer.
The research program in food safety focuses on research questions involving disease-causing microorganisms,their
products,naturally occurring toxicants which contaminate food. The program emphasizes detection,prevention,and
control. Projects may focus either on pre- or post-harvest/slaughter origin of the microbial agent or toxicant.
Additionally, the program supports research on the identification of obstacles to adopting safe food habits, with
particular emphasis on factors affecting consumer attitudes and behavior,as well as the development of intervention
strategies to improve food safety habits.
2000-02590 Novel Molecular Approaches to Eradicating E.coil O157 From the Bovine GI Tract
Foster,J.W.
University of South Alabama;Department of Microbiology and Immunology;Mobile,AL 36688
Grant 01-35201-09955; $230,810; 3 Years
Entemhernonhagic E. colt(EHEC)cause a variety of gastrointestinal infections. EHEC serotype 0157:H7
has emerged as an important foodbome pathogen that threatens many aspects of the food industry. A crucial
component of 0157:H7 pathogenesis and epidemiology is its ability to survive environmental stresses imposed by
the infected host. The sucrecsful pathogen survives this assault through the induction of microbial stress response
systems. The investigators have identified two EHEC stress response systems essential for this organism to survive
in the bovine gastrointestinal tract,an important reservoir of 0157:H7.This project will test strategies designed to
corrupt these stress response systems, thereby rendering O157 unable to survive in the gastrointestinal tract.
(Strategy 1)A natural E. coli peptide was found that dramatically inhibits the activity of as, an important stress
response sigma factor required to transcribe numerous stress response genes. The smallest peptide retaining anti-as
activity will be determined and its activity optimized for use as an antimicrobial agent (Strategy 2)Several O157:H7-
specific bacteriophage have been identified and will be used to design an antimicrobial phage•cocktail• that will be
tested for its ability to kill O157 In the calf shedding modeL In addition to phage that can kill O157,other phage may
be useful as O157 •smart bombs• designed to deliver genes encoding antimicrobial peptides directly to O157.
Although this project specifically addresses the problem of O157 in the farm environment, its success will have a
broad impact on the design and implementation of antimicrobial therapies for many infectious agents.
2000-02589 Effect of Phagosome Activities on Canspylobacter jejuni Pathogenesis
Joens,L.A.
University of Arizona;Department of Veterinary Science and Microbiology;Tucson,AZ 85721
Grant 01-35201-09948; $250,000; 3 Years
Campylobacter jejuni is considered responsible for 3 million cases of acute gastroenteritis per year,making
it the single most common cause of bacterial gastn>enteritis in the U.S.Few factors associated with C.jejuni virulence
have been identified. Progress in this important research area has been hampered by the lack of genetic tools
(transposons,transduction systems)to examine or identify virulence factors. To date,roughly 90 C jejuni genes
have been characterized,only six of which are related to virulence. Therefore,the construction of the katA mutant
and the demonstration that catalase production is important in the survival of the organism in phagocytic cells is a
-- major step toward understanding mechanisms this pathogen uses to successfully interact with the host and cause
disease. The investigators will determine what effect phagosome acidity has on the survival of C.jejuni. The maturity
of the C.jejuni-phagosome will be determined. Inhibitors to the formation of the respiratory burst and precursors
for nitrous oxide production will be used to abrogate the bactericidal activity of the phagosome. Finally,using the
newborn pig model,the investigators will examine the pathogenicity of both the sodB and katA mutant
2000-02446 Immunoelectrochemical/Optical Biosensor with a Capillary Bioseparator/Bioreactor for
Rapid Detection of Pathogens in Poultry and Meat Products
Li,Y.;Liu,Y.
University of Arkansas;Department of Poultry Science;Fayetteville,AR 72701
Grant 01-35201-10056; $130,000; 1.5 Years
The overall goal is to develop a biosensor system for rapid detection of several major pathogens in poultry
and meat products. Three phases will be followed to approach the goal: (1) design and fabricate a capillary
immune-separator/bioreactor for bacterial separation and enzymatic amplification; (2) develop a flow-injection
biosensor system based on the in n n-separatovbioreactor and electrochemical/optical transducers;and(3)evaluate
the biosensor system using processed raw and cooked poultry and meat products. In Phase I, to be fimded first,
an hmnwn-separator/bioreactor will be designed and constructed using a capillary column with immobilized
antibodies.A layer of active membrane will be coated on the inner wall of the capillary for bonding of antibodies.By
injecting samples and then enzyme-labeled antibodies,antibody-pathogen-enzyme labeled antibody conjugates will
be formed in the capillary. Substrates will be injected to generate the signals required for electrochemical/optical
measurements.The conditions of antibody immobilization,bacterial separation,enzymatic reaction and amplification
will be optimized to maximize the capture efficacy and biological signals and minimize noises.Major pathogens found
in taw and cooked poultry and meat products,including Salmonella typhimurium,Listeria monocytogenes,E.soli
and Campylobacter jejuni,will be tested. This proposed research will provide the poultry and meat industry with
new technology for rapid detection of pathogens on site or on line. This will help the industry enhance HACCP
programs, minimize product recalls and clear international trade barriers due to microbial contamination.
Consequently,this will help the whole society ensure food safety,and reduce foodbome diseases and related medical
cost.
2000-02635 Factors Affecting Colonization of Plants by Human Pathogenic Bacteria
Lindow,S.E.; Suslow,T.
University of California,Berkeley;Department of Plant and Microbial Biology;Berkeley,CA 94720-3102
Grant 01-35201-10058;$275,000; 2 Years
The surfaces of plants are normally colonized by large numbers of bacteria,called epiphytes,which include
plant pathogens,other saprophytic and beneficial bacteria as well as human pathogenic bacteria such as E. coli and
Salmonella. Preliminary studies have shown that while E. soli and Salmonella strains can grow on moist plants,they
are hypersensitive to the stress of dry leaf surfaces compared to other bacteria found on plants indicating that stress
tolerance is a determining factor in their epiphytic colonization.We will determine the differences among successful
plant colonists and human pathogens in such intrinsic stress tolerance by measuring their growth and survival after
inoculation onto plants under a variety of controlled conditions as well as in the field. This information will enable the
extensive background information on other leaf surface colonists to be extrapolated to predict the behavior of human
pathogens on plants and to devise better methods to avoid or eradicate human pathogens on plants. While epiphytes
can occur as solitary cells, the majority of the population often occurs in relatively large aggregates which can
contribute to the survival of stresses on leaves and successful immigration to a leaf We will determine the extent to
which the survival of human pathogens on leaves is dependent on the numbers of indigenous bacteria present on a
leaf and, at small scales,will study the role of bacterial aggregates in survival and proliferation of such strains using
microscopic techniques to quantify and evaluate the viability of bacteria on leaves.
2000-02539 DNA Adenine Methylase Mutants of S typhimurium as Modified Live Vaccines in
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Calves
Mahan,M.J.
University of California,Santa Barbara;Dept.of Molecular,Cellular,and Developmental Biology,Santa Barbara,
CA 93106
Grant 01-35201-10188;$310,000;3 Years
Salmonella is the most commonly isolated infectious enteric bacterial pathogen of dairy cattle and the most
common disease associated with human consumption of beef and dairy products. In recent years there has been a
rise in the incidence and severity of human cases of salmonellosis,in part due to the emergence of the antimicrobial
resistant S. typhimurium in cattle populations. On large commercial dairy fanns it is very common for cattle to be
exposed to many Salmonella strains and for calves to become infected shortly after birth. Under these conditions it
would be desirable to have a Salmonella vaccine capable of stimulating immtmity to many Salmonella strains. The
overall goal of this proposal is to test the hypothesis that S. typhimurium lacking the DNA adenine methylase(Dam)
are effective live vaccines against Salmonella infection of cattle. This proposal is based on our rcwrh discovery that
S. typhimurium containing mutations in the Dam gene are totally avirulent yet confer full protection against murine
typhoid fever when used as live vaccines. We propose to determine whether Dam-derivatives of Salmonella are
attenuated for virulence in calves and whether they can serve as live vaccines that elicit immunity to many Salmonella
strains. The proposed vaccines will have a profound influence on reducing salmonellosis in cattle and on improving
the safety of beef and dairy products. Moreover,these vaccines may have utility in other livestock species,which
would provide a means of controlling Salmonella in livestock production systems and enhancing the safety of the food
fly.
2000-02490 Mortality Kinetics of Bacterial Populations Exposed to High Pressure
Hoover,D.G.;Daniels,W.B.
University of Delaware;Department of Animal&Food Sciences and Department of Physics&Astronomy;Newark,
DE 19717-1303
Grant 01-35201-09947; $230,000; 3 Years
The goal of this project is to collect and analyze data from the high hydrostatic pressure processing(HPP)
of microbial pathogens and surrogate organisms in foods using a multiple-vessel pressure unit designed for
measurement of microbial destruction kinetics. This research project will provide information germane to appropriate
processing parameters which can be applied to assure the microbiological safety of foods preserved using HPP.
Modeling the information will provide a summary of the experimental data for use in future commercial applications.
This will increase in importance as HPP becomes more readily accepted by the food industry. U.S.and international
consumers are demanding minimally processed foods that resemble raw or fresh-hilce products in sensory quality(e.g.,
flavor,texture and appearance)and nutrient content as compared to their highly heat-processed counterparts,while
retaining similar levels of safety and convenience. This project will specifically address the nonlinear nature of
HPP-derived semllogarithmic survival curves. Since a logarithmic(first-order)rate of death is normally assumed in
the predictive microbiology of HPP, there is a food safety concern associated with extrapolation of the process
end-point beyond the linear region. This practice canes the danger of underestimating HPP-resistant organisms
remaining in the processed food. Since limited experience and history exist on use of HPP in the production of large
quantities of food,the reliance on first-order kinetics to project the level of risk and process effectiveness warrants
examination to ensure the safety of HPP foods.
2000-02512 Microbiological Safety of Citrus Fruit for Juice Processing
Goodrich,RM.;Parish,M.E.
University of Florida;Citrus Research&Education Center;Lake Alfred,FL 33850
Grant 01-35201-10059; $200,000;2 Years
Fruit products such as citrus juices have traditionally been considered'low-risk"with mcspeut to foodbome
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illness. High levels of acidity, characteristic of citrus juices, have not typically supported the growth of human
pathogens. Furthermore, because almost all citrus juices undergo significant food processing steps such as
concentration,freezing,aseptic packaging,and/or pasteurization,the overall food safety risk to Americans consuming
citrus juices has been quite minimal throughout the 50-year history of mass citrus juice marketing. However,in the
last 5 years,a number of high profile cases of foodb rwe illness have been linked to the consumption of fruit juices,
particularly apple and orange juices.In most of these cases,the juice was consumed in a fresh(norrpasteuriaed)fond
Fresh juice is preferred by some consumers who view it as a more natural product with superior flavor characteristics.
However,it is clear that fresh juice presents a potential food safety risk,and the U.S.Food and Drug Administration
(FDA),who is charged with ensuring the safety of flesh juices,has little actual data available to assess the extent of
these risks Successful completion of this project, which will extensively evaluate the microbial contamination of
oranges entering a juice extraction facility over the course of 2 fruit seasons, will provide data to both fresh and
processed juice product's regarding the potential for further foodbome illness associated with citrus juice. This
research will directly impact an industry with ammst$10 billion in corusmrer sales,and provide infomuation from which
science-based food safety regulations can be forted.
2000-02630 Phase variation and expression of capsular polysaccharide in Vibrio vulnificus
Wright,A.C.
University of Florida;Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition;Gainesville,FL 32611
New Investigator Award;Grant 01-35201-09954;$260,000;3 Years
Vibrio vulnifncus is a natural bacterial inhabitant of bays and estuaries along the entire U.S. coastline. It
causes devastating disease in humans and continues to be the leading cause of mortalities related to seafood
consumption. Disease is primarily associated with eating raw oysters or with exposure of wounds to seawater.
Aggressive attempts to increase public awareness have not been successful in reducing the number of cases, and
increased dependence on foreign seafood markets and aquaculture may exacerbate the problem. The underlying
disease mechanisms are still elusive;however, several laboratories have demonstrated that most, if not all,virulent
strains produce a polysaccharide capsule. Interestingly,when grown under laboratory conditions,about 1 in every
1000 encapsulated cells spontaneously becomes capsule deficient and is no longer able to cause disease. This
process is called phase variation and is a common theme for a number of bacterial species. The process is reversible,
and deficient strains can recover capsular polysaccharide (CPS) expression. Phase variation may be driven by
selective pressure front environmental factors such as starvation or stress. The genetic basis for phase variation in
V. vulnifncus is unlmown. The investigators-previous work described factors that regulate CPS expression and
identified a genetic locus for V. vulnifncus CPS. Phase variation correlated with rearrangements at this locus. The
proposed research will investigate the genetic basis for phase variation, and its influence on survival in the oyster.
These studies should elucidate important disease determinants, increase understanding of the relationship of V.
vu/nif cus to oysters,and perhaps provide future technologies with applications to seafood and aquaculture industries.
2000-02515 Persistent Colonization by E. coli O157:117 in Ruminants
Comick,N.A.
Iowa State University;Veterinary Medical Research Institute;Ames,IA 50011
New Investigator Award;Grant 01-35201-10057; $185,000;3 Years
Escherichia coli O157:H7 and other Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) cause acute gastrointestinal
illness in people.The majority of human disease is associated with the consumption of contaminated foods,many of
which originate from cattle, The principal problem appeals to be that STEC become established in the intestinal tract
of mature cattle or sheep,which then serve as a reservoir. The long-term goal of the proposed research is to eliminate
cattle and sheep as a reservoir of STEC. The central hypothesis is that virulence factors produced by STEC confer
an advantage to the organism that allows for the development of an asymptomatic carrier-shedder state.In preliminary
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studies,the investigator has developed a sheep model for the cant-shedder state of E. coli O157:H7.This model
will be used to complete two objectives to test the hypothesis: 1)Determine if intimin(a bacterial protein required for
one type of attachment in the intestine)is required for E.coli O157:H7 to establish a persistent population in mature
sheep. 2)Determine if Shiga toxin increases the population of E.colt O157:H7 in mature sheep. This research will
benefit US agriculture by determining if either intimin or Shiga toxin should be fittther investigated as a potential
vaccine candidate to eliminate E. coli O157:H7 from cattle and sheep.
2000-02908 Whole Genome Scan for Host-Adapted Salmonella Pathogenicity Genes in Swine
Lichtensteiger,C.A.;Vimr,E.R
University of Illinois,Urbana-Champaign;Department of Veterinary Pathobiology;Urbana,IL 61802
Grant 01-35201-09949;$250,611; 3 Years
Salmonella is a top foodborne pathogen of concern in the pork industry. Pork-based salmonellosis starts
with carcass contamination at the slaughter house with feces from infected pigs (non-ill carrier pigs). Raising
Salmonella-free animals is the ultimate means to prevent foodbome salmonellosis. The mechanism of Salmonella
infection (coloniation) varies with animal host and bacterial species. To gain basic information on colonization
mechanisms of Salmonella in pigs,we propose a functional genonics study of S. typhimurium and S. choleraesuis.
In our study we will generate signature tagged mutants of Salmonella and screen the pools of mutants for loss of
ability to colonize pigs. The mutants will have a random gene tagged;this will inactivate the gene and provide a unique
nuclear tag for mutant identification. Mutants that fail to colonize will be confirmed attenuated by a mixed challenge
infection with wild type Salmonella. The signature tag will also allow cloning,sequencing,characterizing the gene
that was inactivated. Some of the colonization genes will have functional homologues in the DNA database;while
others will have structural homologues previously unknown to be involved in colonization or be novel genes not
previously known. The colonization genes or their protein products are targets for future applied studies to develop
means to raise Salmonella-fire pigs. These means include novel vaccines that prevent colonization or competitive
exclusion cultures by non-pathogenic bacteria that inhibit colonization by pathogenic bacteria
2000-02587 Genetic Determinants of Salmonella in Chickens and Mice
Maloy,S.
University of Illinois,Urbana-Champaign;Depasunent of Microbiology;Urbana, IL 61801
Grant 01-35201-09950; $195,000; 3 Years
Salmonella enterica are a large group of bacteria that are a major ea»sr of food poisoning. A common
same ofhuman food poisoning is via Salmonella strains that infect fame anrtnatc Salmonella strains produce distinct
disease symptoms in different animals. Some Salmonella strains cause relatively mild disease,but strains with new
, pernicious virulence properties arise rapidly. Such new strains often seem to have acquired changes in
host-specificity that allowed them to infect a different animal host.If we understood what determines host specificity
we could develop approaches to limit this problem,but very little is known about what determines the host-specificity
of bacteria.Our experiments will use genetic approaches to compare Salmonella Enteritidis,which has a broad host
range and infects humans, chickens, and mice, with Salmonella Pullorum, a host-specific strain that only infects
chickens. We plan to identify the genes that determine host-specificity in these two strains of Salmonella. These
studies will provide novel approaches to limit the development and spread of virulent Salmonella strains between farm
animals and from farm animals to humans,and approaches to circumvent the emergence of new infectious diseases
in farm animals.
2000-02457 Sources of Genetic Resistance to Reduce Fumonisin in Corn-based Foods
White,D.G.;Pataky,J.K.
University of Illinois,Urbana-Champaign;Department of Crop Sciences;Urbana, IL 61801
5
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Grant 01-35201-10060;$175,000;2 Years
Fumonisins are mycatoxins produced by the fungi Fusarium verticillioides and F.prof feratum. These two
fimgi cause Fusarium ear rot which is the most commonly occurring ear and kernel rot disease of corn. Both fungi
also are often found in association with non-rotted kernels. Fumonisins cause serious health problems in animals and
potentially in humans. Because of the large and diverse number of corn-based food products consumed by humans,
even a minimal possibility of human health problems associated with consumption of corn products creates a serious
public health concern. The long term goal of this project is to identify genetic resistance to Fusarium ear rot and to
the production of fumonisins in corn that can be incorporated into widely grown commercially acceptable corn
hybrids. Grain of resistant hybrids will have lower levels of fumonisins and the corn-based food products that can
be made from them will also have low levels of fumonisins. In order to accomplish this goal we will evaluate 1,200
com inbred lines, representing a large diversity of corn genotypes, in Fl crosses with a susceptible widely used,
agronomically acceptable,corn inbred. Inbreds that are resistant in Fl crosses will then be studied to further identify
those that can be used to create resistant,commercially acceptable,corn hybrids.
2000-02627 The Effect of Antibiotics on Shiga toxin Phage Movement in Ruminants
Acheson D.W.K.
New England Medical Center,Division of Infectious Diseases;Boston,MA 02111
Grant 01-35201-10168;$240,000; 3 Years
Shiga toxin-producing E.coli(STEC)such as E. coli O157:H7 are Unpin Lint emerging pathogens in the
United States. Following intestinal infection, the production of Shiga toxins by STEC results in serious and
fife-threatening complications. The genes encoding these potent toxins are present on viral particles known as
bacteriophages. We have previously found that when mice are infected with O157 treating them with certain
antibiotics leads to an increase in toxin expression.The antibiotics also lead to increased movement of the viruses from
the O157 strain into other E. coli in the mouse intestine.Our hypothesis is that certain antibiotics used in agriculture
lead to increased movement of toxin genes carried by the viruses from one bacterial strain to another in the intestine
of farm animals such as sheep and cattle.Our project will examine the effects of antibiotics used in agriculture on the
movement of labeled toxin bacteriophages in the intestines of sheep. If this occurs in farm animals it is not only a
critical issue that has to be considered in the use of certain antibiotics, but may go a long way in explaining the
emergence of Shiga toxin positive O157 and other STEC serotypes. By understanding more about the variations
between different Shiga toxin-encoding bacteriophages and learning what drives them to move from one strain to
another we will be better placed to prevent the spread of bacteriophages and the potential evolution of a Shiga
toxin-producing organism even more deadly than E. coli O157:H7.
2000-02600 Characterization of Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Among Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia
con
Meng,J.;White,D.G.;DebRoy,C;Zhao,S;Wagner,D.
University of Maryland,College Park;Department of Nutrition and Food Science; College Park,MD 20742
Grant 01-35201-09951;$250,000; 3 Years
During the past decade, bacteria that cause human diseases have developed resistance to many of the
antibiotics commonly used for treatment. Excessive use for treating animal diseases,and subtherapeutic applications
of antibiotics for disease prevention and growth promotion in animal husbandry may have played a significant role in
accelerating the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria Such organisms can then be transferred from animals to
humans through the foal chain.Enterohanonhagic E.coli(EHEC)have been a significant cause of foodbome illness
in the United States. These pathogens also have been acquiring resistance phenotypes. In order to control the
emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance, we need to better understand the trend of resistance and the
mechanisms that lead to antibiotic resistance in foodbome pathogens. The present study is aimed at determining the
progression of antimicrobial resistance phenotypes among EHEC isolates of animal and human origin over the past
(p'
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thirty years. At the conclusion of the proposed research,the investigators will generate baseline data on the trend of
antibiotic resistance in EHEC which may help elucidate the role that the use of antibiotics in food animals plays in the
development of antibiotic resistance in foodbome pathogens. The will also have a better understanding of the genetic
basis of the development of antibiotic resistance in these pathogens and of how heterologous resistance determinants
are acquired and disseminated.
2000-02632 A Sensitive,Accurate and Rapid Method for Detection of Foodborne Pathogens
Kim,C.H.;Vayda,M.E.;Boettcher,K.
University of Maine,Department of Biochemistry,Microbiology,and Molecular Biology,Orono,ME 04469
Strengthening Award;Grant 01-35201-09951; $180,000;2 Years
Our ability to ensure the safety of the nations food supply depends on the availability of accurate,rapid,
dependable and inexpensive detection systems.The most reliable methods for assessing food contamination involve
enrichment and selective culture conditions.Although sensitive enough to identify a single colony-forming unit,culture
assays are time consuming, typically requiring 4 to 7 days. Over the past decade, researchers worldwide have
developed several rapid diagnostic agents for common food contaminants. However, rapid and sensitive
implementation of these procedures for routine food screening is hampered by the requirement for skilled operators,
inhibition by food constituents, and expense. In this proposal, the investigators seek to develop an inexpensive,
sensitive,nor-polymerise chain reaction assay that is simple enough to be used by food processors or regulators to
screen for known food contaminants. The approach employs rolling circle amplification of pathogen targets using
sequence specific"molecular padlocks",which we have used for detection of other bacterial targets. We will first
demoitsuate the efficacy of this assay for L. monocytogenes,because of potential application to the dairy,blueberry,
potato, meat processing and seafood industries in Maine. The long range goal of this study is to develop an
automated procedure using a suite of molecular padlocks to screen for suspected food pathogens including
Salmonella spp.,E. colt O157:H7 and S. aureus.
2000-02527 Incorporating Humidity into Microbial Inactivation Models for Convection Cooking of
Meats
Marks,B.P; Smith,D.M.;Ryser,E.T.
Michigan State University;Department of Agricultural Engineering;East Lansing,MI 48824-1323
Grant 01-35201-09952;$130,000; 2 Years
Major growth in the market for fully-cooked meat products and recent changes in federal regulations have
resulted in a significant need to validate process lethality in commercial cooking systems. Regulations state that
processors must validate new or altered process schedules by scientifically supportable means. However,existing
models for pathogen inactivation, based on limited-scope laboratory tests, are insufficient to predict results in
commercial convection cooking environments. Preliminary results suggest that differences in process humidity are
a primary cause for this insufficiency. Consequently,the long-term goal of the proposed research is to develop
improved methods for design and operation of thermal processes,based on the critical control criterion of pathogen
inactivation. The specific objectives are: (1) To develop a quantitative, population-based model for thermal
inactivation of a Salmonella"cocktail"in ground poultry breast meat subjected to air convection treatments,(2)To
formulate novel secondary models that relate the thermal inactivation parameters to humidity,(3)To test the effect
of heating rate on the validity of the inactivation model,and(4)To validate the inactivation models with pilot-scale
data Very small samples of ground meat will be inoculated with the target organisms and heated in a unique
laboratory moist air heating system. Pathogen inactivation models will be developed from the resulting data The
predictive ability of these models will then be tested by comparing them to transient data from inoculated heating tests
in a pilot-scale convection/steam oven.The resulting models will ultimately help optimize process design and operation
to ensure product safety.
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2000-02444 Genetics of Zearalenone Biosynthesis and Grain Colonization by Gibberella zeae
Trail,F.
Michigan State University;Department of Botany and Plant Pathology;East Lansing,MI 48824
Grant 01-35201-10062;$200,000;3 Years
Zearalenone is a mycotoxin produced by the filamentous fungus, Gibberella zeae,during the colonization of
grain including corn,barley and wheat G. zeae,the head scab fungus, is a devastating pathogen that has caused
economic losses across North Dakota,Minnesota and South Dakota that approached one billion dollars in 1993 and
from$200-400 million in subsequent years.Zearalenone has estrogenic effects on mammals,including humans,and
continued low levels of exposure may pose a health risk The proposed research will focus on understanding the
biosynthesis of zearalenone by G. zeae and the relationship between zearalenone production and colonization of
stored grain by G. zeae. Specificmlly,the investigators will isolate the gene encoding the main enzyme,a polyketide
synthase,involved in zearalenone production and determine the role of zearalenone in the fungal life cycle. We will
isolate and sequence genes expressed during zearalenone biosynthesis and from G. zeae colonizing grain.Through
a type of genomics analysis called microanays,we will identify those genes expressed specifically during colonization
and mycotoxin production and those expressed during both processes. These will be used to develop a model for
analysis of potential control compounds using this same technology. The genomics approach will expedite analysis
of gene expression during these specific stages. An understanding of zearalenone biosynthesis,its relationship to the
proliferation of G. zeae, and the genetic mechanisms involved in grain colonization will allow practical means for
control of mycotoxins produced by G. zeae.
2000-02524 RNA Aptamers for Food Safety Diagnostics
Miller,E.S.
North Carolina State University;Department of Microbiology;Raleigh,NC 27695-7615
Grant 01-35201-09911;$145,000; 2 Years
Using molecular selection methods, random sequences in RNA libraries can be synthesized and rare
molecules selected that bind with high affinity to a chosen target molecule.The most widely used procedure,termed
SELEX(Systematic Evolution ofLigands by Exponential enrichment),has generated high-affinity RNA aptamers
of numerous molecules. The objectives of this program are to isolate RNA aptamers that directly bind and detect
bacteria in complex mixtures such as food products, thereby eliminating elaborate culture or on-she molecular
methods. Strains of E. coli,Salmonella and Staphylococcus will be used as whole-cell targets in isolating high-
affinity RNA aptamers that bind the surface of these bacteria The specific aims of this program are to : i) Prepare
bacteria as selecting and counter-selecting targets relevant to food safety;n)Select RNA aptamers that bind surface
molecules of target bacteria with high affinity and high specificity; iii) Characterize and appropriately modify the
selected diagnostic aptamers;and iv)Conjugate the RNA aptamers to assay reagents for diagnostic format. The
significance of this approach is the potential to rapidly develop detection systems that function as well or better than
antibodies.The system potentially can be adapted to any biological or molecule of food safety concern and employed
at various stages of food processing,manufacturing or consumer delivery.
2000-02518 Safe Food Preservation
Wolf-Hall,C.E.;Garden-Robinson,J.
North Dakota State University;Departments of Cereal Science and Food and Nutrition;Fargo,ND 58104
Strengthening Award; Grant 01-35201-09953;$60,000; 2 Years
More questions are answered annually on food preservation than any other type of question in family and
consumer sciences,and the North Dakota State University food preservation home page accounts for about one-third
of the organizations Internet "hits". With the proliferation of the Internet, canning and other food preservation
information has become widely available,with untested recipes shared among web users and circulated on home
pages. Improperly canned food could pose a public health threat due to the possibility of botulism toxin. Recently,
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interest in home food preservation has grown and county extension agents have expressed concern in responding to
questions about foods that have been unprupcily canned,particularly salsa products and canned quick breads. The
long-teen goal of this project is to determine the safety of home-canned food recipes and disseminate this information
to consumers through consumer education directed by Extension outreach programs. The four objectives of this
project are: 1)to evaluate the potentially hazardous nature of six canned quick bread recipes and six salsa recipes
(as varied as possible) obtained from the Internet and popular magazines, based on pH and water activity
measurement;2)to evaluate the survival and outgrowth of C. sporogenes spores in two different fonnulations of
canned quick bread recipes obtained from the Internet;3)to develop a consumer extension publication based on the
results of the research study; and 4)to develop,adapt and pilot a train-the-trainer lesson plan and media materials
for extension agents detailing current safe food preservation recommendations for popular fonds such as salsa
2000-02544 Genetics and Ecology of E. coli O157:117 Subpopulations
Benson,A.K.;Ju,J.
University of Nebraska;Department of Food Science and Technology;Lincoln,NE 68583-0919
Grant 01-35201-10115; $215,000;2 Years
The presence of E. coli 0157:117 in cattle and the subsequent potential for transmission to humans through
contaminated beef poses a significant problem to the food production industry,regulatory officials,and consumers
alike. Recent studies using high resolution methods for chromosome comparison have demonstrated the existence
of two genetically distinct subpopulations of this organism that have appamndy unique ecological niches. Since one
of the subpopulations was underrepresented among human clinical isolates that were tested,the hypothesis arose that
this subpopulation is either less virulent or is inefficiently transmitted to humans through contaminated beef hi order
to test this hypothesis, tools need to be developed to facilitate precise measurement of the distribution of these
subpopulations and to enhance our understanding of the genetic basis for their unique ecologies. The experiments
outlined in this proposal are therefore designed to use genomics and bioinfomratics to identify the DNA sequence of
all chromosome alterations that distinguish the two subpopulations. These sequences will provide two very critical
tools to promote our understanding of the potential for these subpopulations for virulence in humans. First, a
polymerase chain reaction-based method will be devised that can rapidly categorize E. coli O157:H7 isolates into
the two different subpopulations. This method will facilitate large-scale epidemiological studies on transmission
patterns of the subpopulations in animal and human environments. Secondly, understanding the nature of the
chromosome alterations will provide a means for genetically dissecting the consequences of the alterations on the
physiology and ecology of the subpopulations and allow us to begin making connections between selective and
suppressive forces that are at work in different animal production environments.
2000-02510 Identification of Salmonella Adbesins for Colonization of Chickens
Wilmes-Riesenberg,M.
Bowling Green State University;Department of Biological Sciences;Bowling Green,OH 43403
Grant 01-35201-10150; $135,000; 3 Years
Salmonellosis represents a serious global problem. The incidence of infection resulting from haunt
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pathogens continues to increase worldwide despite extensive research and changes at the production and processing
levels. Salmonella is one of the leading causes of bacterial foodborne disease outbreaks. The long-term objective
of this research is to reduce or eliminate Salmonella contamination of poultry. An understanding of the mechanism
of Salmonella adherence to chicken cells could be particularly valuable in the following situations: (1)developing an
efficacious live oral vaccine to prevent Salmonella colonization; (2)identifying potential changes in diet that might
reduce Salmonella colonization;or(3)identifying a means of treating chicken carcasses that may reduce the numbers
of attached bacteria. Preliminary data support the hypothesis that Salmonella synthesize a surface protein that is
induced by growth in high iron environments and which functions in binding the bacterial pathogen to host cells. The
specific goals for this grant period are: (1) to continue studies to identify Salmonella adhesins that function in
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colonization of chickens;(2)to determine if any newly identified adhesin is made by other serotypes of S. enterica
which colonize chickens;(3)to determine if induction of an immune response to these adhesins will reduce the ability
of S. typhimurium and other Salmonella serotypes to colonize chickens; and (4)to identify genes which encode
proteins regulating the iron-induced adhesin and to evaluate their role in virulence. The investigators' approach will
involve using a variety of genetic and molecular biology techniques to identify mutants unable to synthesize adhesins.
2000-02621 The Role of Catabolite Repression in Clostridium perfringens Food Poisoning
Melville,S.B.
University of Tennessee,Memphis;Department of Microbiology and homunology;Memphis,TN 38163
Grant 01-35201-10114;$240,000;3 Years
Clostridium perfringens is one of the most frequent causes of food poisoning in people. C. perfringens
often contaminates prepared food, due to its ability to produce a heat-resistant spore. After cooking, the spores
germinate and the bacterium grows at an extremely rapid rate if the food is not refrigerated. When contaminated food
is eaten, C.perfringens sporulates and produces a potent enterotoxin in the intestines,which causes the disease
symptoms. An essential feature of C.perfringens food poisoning is the bacterium's ability to regulate the uptake and
metabolism of nutrients from the food it is growing in. The global transcriptional regulatory protein,CcpA,has been
shown to be a primary regulator of carbohydrate utilization in other gram positive bacteria. The three objectives of
this proposal are designed to determine what role CepA plays in C.perfringens'ability to grow in food products and
regulate carbohydrate utilization. The objectives of the proposed research are: (1)determine if glucose acts as a
catabolite repressor of alternative sugar metabolism during growth and sporulation of C.perfringens;(2)determine
the role the CcpA regulatory protein plays in C.perfringens ability to grow rapidly in foodstuffs;and(3)identify the
molecular mechanism of CcpA activity in C.perfringens.Together,these studies will help to characterize an essential
regulatory component in C.perfringens food poisoning. These results may also help us to come up with better food
handling techniques to lower the incidence of this very common disease.
2000-02613 Verification of Safe Cooking Endpoints in Beef and Pork by Multiple Antigen ELISA
Keeton,J.T;Miller,D.R.
Texas A&M University;Department of Animal Science;College Station,TX 77843
Grant 01-35201-10169;$150,000; 2 Years
Contamination of processed meats by pathogenic organisms has caused foodbome disease outbreaks
throughout the U.S.in recent years,and the publicity has provided the impetus for new procedures to reduce disease
risks. Recent USDA-PSIS regulations require that pathogens be destroyed in frilly-cooked products;thus,they must
meet or exceed the minimum safe cooking endpoint temperatures(EPTs)and this endpoint must be verified Current
methods for determining the EPT achieved in products after cooking and in imported meats are deficient at present
Diagnostic tests based on immunoassay technology(i.e.,'dipsticks,'like those used in home pregnancy tests)have
become popular in the food industry due to their reliability,ease of use,sensitivity and low cost. The investigators'
studies have shown that proteins present in meat muscle tissue may be useful as post-cooking 'molecular
thermometers'and they have demonstrated their potential for use in EPT tests. They also found that no single meat
protein can accurately predict the EPT reached,but by determining the ratio of 3 or more proteins using a diagnostic
'dipstick'it should be possible to accurately assess the EPT reached at any time post-cooking. The investigators
propose to develop a device to measure multiple meat proteins covering the appropriate EPT range(s)for beef and
pork products. This concept presents a new approach and device for EPT testing. It will be rapid, accurate and
inexpensive and will meet a critical need for verifying the safety of commercially cooked products,including those
prepared at fast food outlets.
2000-02614 Minimizing Salmonella Enteritidis Invasion During Induced Molting
Rieke, S.C.
Texas A&M University,Poultry Science Department;College Station,TX 77843-2472
Grant 01-35201-09946; $79,190; 2 Years
Salmonellosis is one of the most common foodbome diseases with an estimated 800,000 to 4 million human
infections reported each year in the United States. During the past 10 to 15 years, the number of cases of
gastroenteritis due to Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Enteritidis (S. Enteritidis) infections has
greatly increased in the United States and Europe and by 1995, S. Enteritidis comprised 25% of all foodbome
Salmonella isolates. Between 1985 and 1991, over 80% of S. Enteritidis infections in the United States were
associated with table eggs and this may be linked to the specific stressful management practice of inducing a molt to
stimulate multiple egg-laying cycles in hens. Sixty percent of the estimated 240 million laying hens nationwide are force
molted with the practice growing more popular.Feed withdrawal is the primary method used in the layer industry to
induce molting However, feed withdrawal dramatically enhances S. Enteritidis recovery from clops, increases
invasion of organs in chickens and increases horizontal transfer in flocks.The poultry industry needs alternative molting
procedures that do not require feed withdrawal but allow managers to keep the economic advantages of recycling
laying hens by molting without causing a S. Enteritidis contamination problem. The investigators plan to determine
whether molt induction diets will minimize S Enteritidis and if key characteristics in the chicken crop mictoenviromnent
can be linked with limiting S. Enteritidis colonization and pathogenesis.This will provide the poultry industry with a
scientifically based rationale for possible management alternatives that reduce molting as a major risk for S. Enteritidis
contamination.
2000-01126 LC/MS Equipment Research Enhancement for Department of Veterinary Sciences
Galey,F.
University of Wyoming;Department of Veterinary Sciences;Laramie,WY 82070
Equipment Grant; Grant 01-35201-09908; $50,000; 1 Year
Researchers in the Department of Veterinary Sciences and collaborators are currently involved in
investigations about the fate of antibiotics in milk, drug disposition in minor food animal species, and the
neutraceuticalnatural product chemistry. The LC/MS from this proposal is a scientific instrument that will allow for
detection and chemical structural identification of compounds in meat and milk Compounds that can be detected
using this instrument include antibiotics as well as other small molecules such as some natural products. Specifically,
this instrument will allow for development of methods that can confirm the presence of these compounds when they
are suspected of contaminating milk and meat Once new methods are developed, the instrument will allow for
development of grants to study the fate over time of a drug or natural toxin in an animal as well as studies that survey
the extent of contamination of various food animal products.
GreenTruck: Waste Front Page Page 1 of 3
'.... w*z4.�.. �.3's�.x..,'XYa.�L ti' , Arm.' c E,..
► WATFE TRANSOURCE
u
CONTACTS/LINKS
XManaging Hazardous Waste EPA Web Sites:
From Vehicle Maintenance ► Hazardous Waste
1 Universal Waste
Hazardous wastes present a dancer to ► Vehicle Maintenance
T ucktIN S human health and the environment ► Used Oil Man,gem,-it
SERVICESI through direct exposure to the wastes Program
► News or by potential exposures from scare contact./web
► Community transportation and disposal. Hazardous Sites:
► Training S. wastes are defined and regulated by ► State Solid and
Conferences the Resource Conservation and Hazardous Waste Contacts
► CT Staff Recovery Act, known as RCRA ("Rick- I. state-specific Universal
1 Contact Us Rah"). Waste Regulations Web
► Site Map site
► Help RCRA In Focus
RCRA in Focus provides an overview of
the basic federal regulations covering
wastes that are likely to be hazardous
in your business. It also provides
recycling and pollution prevention
options to help businesses decrease
the amount of hazardous waste they
produce.
Hazardous Waste: A Guide
For Small Businesses
EPA's user-friendly manual is targeted
to small quantity generators of
hazardous wastes. The manual helps
small businesses determine whether
they generate hazardous waste and
provides comprehensive information on
how to comply with the federal
hazardous waste regulations for small
quantity generators.
Batteries, Pesticides,
Thermostats, Lamps Wastes
Universal wastes are generated in a
wide variety of settings by a large
number of facilities, including
residences and offices, and may be
present in significant volumes in non-
hazardous waste management
systems. The Universal Waste Rule
currently applies to batteries,
pesticides, thermostats and fluorescent
lamps.
State-Specific Universal
Waste Regulations
State adoption of the 1995 Universal
Waste Rule is optional because the rule
is less stringent than the previous
requirements under RCRA. States can
http://www.greentruck.com/waste/index.html 2/10/2004
GreenTruck: Waste Front Page Page 3 of 3
or petroleum-based solvents. For many
shops, the paperwork, management
requirements and training imposed
because of the use of large quantities
of hazardous substances and
generation of large quantities of
hazardous waste has become quite
burdensome and time consuming.
Vehicle Painting
Painting operations generate both solid
and hazardous wastes including waste
solvent, paint, sandblasting grit and
rags and can also produce air
emissions and discharges to
wastewater treatment plants. Resource
Conservation Recovery Act, Clean
Water Act and Clean Air Act
requirements may pertain to vehicle
painting.
GREENTRUCK HOME I AIR & FUEL I PREVENTION I REFERENCE I SPILLS I STORAGE I WASTE I WATER
NEWS I COMMUNITY f TRAINING & CONFERENCES I GT STAFF I CONTACT US I SITE MAP I HELP
Copyright American Trucking Associations, All Rights Reserved Read ATA's Y2K Statement
As-
http://www.greentruck.comlwaste/index.html 2/10/2004
. GreenTruck: Waste Front Page Page 2 of 3
create different standards (except for
batteries due to the Battery Act), but
they have to be equivalent to the
federal regulations.
Disposal Of Used Antifreeze
Many vehicle maintenance operations
generate used antifreeze. Before use,
antifreeze is not considered a
hazardous waste. However, after
antifreeze goes through a radiator it
may become contaminated, causing
the used antifreeze to exceed one of
the hazardous waste definitions
thresholds.
Servicing A/C Systems
Refrigeration service activities are
regulated under the Clean Air Act
which is designed to prevent ozone
depletion by requiring the capture and
recovery of used refrigerants, the use
of certified recycling equipment, and
the training and certification of all
operators.
Recycling Used Batteries
Batteries contain acids, lead and other
pollutants that may escape to nearby
surface waters or percolate into
groundwater sources when improperly
stored or disposed. Vehicle batteries
should never be disposed of with
routine solid waste. Battery recycling
agreements should be in place with
your battery supplier.
Disposal Of Vehicle Fluids
Changing vehicle fluids includes oil,
transmission, hydraulic, brake and
antifreeze changes and lubricating
greases. The primary environmental
impact from fluid changes is potential
surface and groundwater
contamination resulting from spills or
improper disposal of fluids and solid
debris.
Used Oil Management
If you are one of the many people who
change their own motor oil, you need
to know how to properly dispose of the
used oil. Did you know the used oil
from one oil change can contaminate 1
million gallons of groundwater if
dumped down a storm drain?
Parts Washing
Traditional parts cleaning technologies
utilize either caustics, natural solvents
http://www.greentruck.com/waste/index.html 2/10/2004
Protection of Environment - Oil Pollution Prevention Page 1 of 6
TITLE 40--PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENT
40 CFR Part 112
Revised as of July 1, 1998
PART 112—OIL POLLUTION PREVENTION
Sec. 112.1 General applicability.
(a)This part establishes procedures, methods and equipment and other requirements for equipment to prevent
the discharge of oil from non-transportation-related onshore and offshore facilities into or upon the navigable
waters of the United States or adjoining shorelines. ( V&A.—
(b) Except as provided in paragraph (d) of this section,this part applies to owners or operators of non-
transportation-related onshore and offshore facilities engaged in drilling, producing,gathering,storing, processing,
refining,transferring, distributing or consuming oil and oil products, and which,due to their location, could
reasonably be expected to discharge oil in harmful quantities, as defined in part 110 of this chapter, into or upon
the navigable waters of the United States or adjoining shorelines.
(c)As provided in section 313 (86 Stat. 875)departments, agencies, and instrumentalities of the Federal
government are subject to these regulations to the same extent as any person, except for the provisions of Sec.
112.6.
(d)This part does not apply to:
(1)Facilities, equipment or operations which are not subject to the jurisdiction of the Environmental
Protection Agency, as follows:
(i)Onshore and offshore facilities,which, due to their location, could not reasonably be
expected to discharge oil into or upon the navigable waters of the United States or
adjoining shorelines. This determination shall be based solely upon a consideration of
the geographical, locational aspects of the facility(such as proximity to navigable
waters or adjoining shorelines, land contour, drainage, etc.) and shall exclude
consideration of manmade features such as dikes, equipment or other structures
which may serve to restrain, hinder, contain, or otherwise prevent a discharge of oil
from reaching navigable waters of the United States or adjoining shorelines; and
(ii) Equipment or operations of vessels or transportation-related onshore and offshore
facilities which are subject to authority and control of the Department of
Transportation, as defined in the Memorandum of Understanding between the
Secretary of Transportation and the Administrator of the Environmental Protection
Agency, dated November 24, 1971, 36 FR 24000.
(2)Those facilities which, although otherwise subject to the jurisdiction of the Environmental
Protection Agency, meet both of the following requirements:
Cu)The underground buried storage capacity of the facility is 42,000 gallons or less of
oil, and
(ii)The storage capacity,which is not buried, of the facility is 1,320 gallons or less of
oil, provided no single container has a capacity in excess of 660 gallons.
(e)This part provides for the preparation and implementation of Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure
-- Plans prepared in accordance with Sec. 112.7, designed to complement existing laws, regulations, rules,
standards, policies and procedures pertaining to safety standards, fire prevention and pollution prevention rules,
so as to form a comprehensive balanced Federal/State spill prevention program to minimize the potential for oil
discharges. Compliance with this part does not in any way relieve the owner or operator of an onshore or an
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Protection of Environment - Oil Pollution Prevention Page 2 of 6
offshore facility from compliance with other Federal, State or local laws.
[38 FR 34165, Dec. 11, 1973, as amended at 41 FR 12657, Mar.26, 1976]
Sec. 112.2 Definitions.
For the purposes of this part:
Adverse weather means the weather conditions that make it difficult for response equipment and personnel to
cleanup or remove spilled oil, and that will be considered when identifying response systems and equipment in a
response plan for the applicable operating environment. Factors to consider include significant wave height as
specified in Appendix E to this part, as appropriate, ice conditions,temperatures,weather-related visibility, and
currents within the area in which the systems or equipment are intended to function.
Complex means a facility possessing a combination of transportation-related and non-transportation-related
components that is subject to the jurisdiction of more than one Federal agency under section 311 p) of the Clean
Water Act.
Contract or other approved means:
(1)A written contractual agreement with an oil spill removal organization(s)that identifies and
ensures the availability of the necessary personnel and equipment within appropriate response
times; and/or
(2)A written certification by the owner or operator that the necessary personnel and equipment
resources, owned or operated by the facility owner or operator, are available to respond to a
discharge within appropriate response times; and/or
r
(3)Active membership in a local or regional oil spill removal organization(s)that has identified and
ensures adequate access through such membership to necessary personnel and equipment to
respond to a discharge within appropriate response times in the specified geographic areas; and/or
(4)Other specific arrangements approved by the Regional Administrator upon request of the owner
or operator.
Discharge includes but is not limited to, any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying or dumping.
For purposes of this part,the term discharge shall not include any discharge of oil which is authorized by a permit
issued pursuant to section 13 of the River and Harbor Act of 1899(30 Stat. 1121, 33 U.S.C. 407), or sections 402
or 405 of the FWPCA Amendments of 1972 (86 Stat. 816 et seq., 33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.).
Fish and wildlife and sensitive environments means areas that may be identified by either their legal designation
or by evaluations of Area Committees (for planning) or members of the Federal On-Scene Coordinator's spill
response structure (during responses).These areas may include wetlands, National and State parks, critical
habitats for endangered/threatened species,wilderness and natural resource areas, marine sanctuaries and
estuarine reserves, conservation areas, preserves,wildlife areas,wildlife refuges, wild and scenic rivers,
recreational areas, national forests, Federal and State lands that are research national areas, heritage program
areas, land trust areas, and historical and archeological sites and parks. These areas may also include unique
habitats such as: aquaculture sites and agricultural surface water intakes, bird nesting areas,critical biological
resource areas, designated migratory routes, and designated seasonal habitats.
Injury means a measurable adverse change, either long-or short-term, in the chemical or physical quality or the
viability of a natural resource resulting either directly or indirectly from exposure to a discharge of oil, or exposure
to a product of reactions resulting from a discharge of oil.
Maximum extent practicable means the limitations used to determine oil spill planning resources and response
times for on-water recovery,shoreline protection,and cleanup for worst case discharges from onshore non-
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Protection of Environment - Oil Pollution Prevention Page 3 of 6
transportation-related facilities in adverse weather. It considers the planned capability to respond to a worst case
discharge in adverse weather, as contained in a response plan that meets the requirements in Sec. 112.20 or in a
specific plan approved by the Regional Administrator.
The term navigable waters of the United States means navigable waters as defined in section 502(7) of the
FWPCA, and includes:
(1)All navigable waters of the United States, as defined in judicial decisions prior to passage of the
1972 Amendments to the FWPCA (Pub. L. 92-500), and tributaries of such waters;
(2) Interstate waters;
(3) Intrastate lakes, rivers, and streams which are utilized by interstate travelers for recreational or
other purposes; and
(4) Intrastate lakes, rivers, and streams from which fish or shellfish are taken and sold in interstate
commerce. Navigable waters do not include prior converted cropland. Notwithstanding the
determination of an area's status as prior converted cropland by any other federal agency, for the
purposes of the Clean Water Act,the final authority regarding Clean Water Act jurisdiction remains
with EPA.
Offshore facility means any facility of any kind located in, on, or under any of the navigable waters of the United
States,which is not a transportation-related facility.
Oil means oil of any kind or in any form, including, but not limited to petroleum, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse and oil
mixed with wastes other than dredged spoil.
Oil Spill Removal Organization means an entity that provides oil spill response resources, and includes any for-
profit or not-for-profit contractor, cooperative, or in-house response resources that have been established in a
geographic area to provide required response resources.
Onshore facility means any facility of any kind located in, on, or under any land within the United States, other
than submerged lands,which is not a transportation-related facility.
Owner or operator means any person owning or operating an onshore facility or an offshore facility, and in the
case of any abandoned offshore facility, the person who owned or operated such facility immediately prior to such
abandonment.
Person includes an individual, firm, corporation, association, and a partnership.
Regional Administrator, means the Regional Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, or his
designee, in and for the Region in which the facility is located.
Spill event means a discharge of oil into or upon the navigable waters of the United States or adjoining shorelines
in harmful quantities, as defined at 40 CFR part 110.
Transportation-related and non-transportation-related as applied to an onshore or offshore facility, are defined in
the Memorandum of Understanding between the Secretary of Transportation and the Administrator of the
Environmental Protection Agency,dated November 24, 1971, 36 FR 24080.
United States means the States,the District of Columbia,the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico,the Canal Zone,
Guam,American Samoa,the Virgin Islands, and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
Vessel means every description of watercraft or other artificial contrivance used, or capable of being used as a
means of transportation on water, other than a public vessel.
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Protection of Environment - Oil Pollution Prevention Page 4 of 6
Worst case discharge for an onshore non-transportation-related facility means the largest foreseeable discharge
in adverse weather conditions as determined using the worksheets in Appendix D to this part.
[38 FR 34165, Dec. 11, 1973, as amended at 58 FR 45039,Aug. 25, 1993; 59 FR 34097,July 1, 1994]
Sec. 112.3 Requirements for preparation and implementation of Spill Prevention Control and
Countermeasure Plans.
(a) Owners or operators of onshore and offshore facilities in operation on or before the effective date of this part
that have discharged or, due to their location, could reasonably be expected to discharge oil in harmful quantities,
as defined in 40 CFR part 110, into or upon the navigable waters of the United States or adjoining shorelines,
shall prepare a Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure Plan (hereinafter"SPCC Plan"), in writing and in
accordance with Sec. 112.7. Except as provided for in paragraph (t)of this section,such SPCC Plan shall be
prepared within six months after the effective date of this part and shall be fully implemented as soon as possible,
but not later than one year after the effective date of this part.
(b) Owners or operators of onshore and offshore facilities that become operational after the effective date of this
part, and that have discharged or could reasonably be expected to discharge oil in harmful quantities, as defined
in 40 CFR part 110, into or upon the navigable waters of the United States or adjoining shorelines, shall prepare
an SPCC Plan in accordance with Sec. 112.7. Except as provided for in paragraph (f) of this section, such SPCC
Plan shall be prepared within six months after the date such facility begins operations and shall be fully
implemented as soon as possible, but not later than one year after such facility begins operations.
(c) Owners or operators of onshore and offshore mobile or portable facilities,such as onshore drilling or workover
rigs, barge mounted offshore drilling or workover rigs, and portable fueling facilities shall prepare and implement
an SPCC Plan as required by paragraphs (a), (b) and (d) of this section.The owners or operators of such facility
need not prepare a new SPCC Plan each time the facility is moved to a new site. The SPCC Plan may be a
general plan, prepared in accordance with Sec. 112.7, using good engineering practice. When the mobile or
portable facility is moved, it must be located and installed using the spill prevention practices outlined in the SPCC
Plan for the facility. No mobile or portable facility subject to this regulation shall operate unless the SPCC Plan
has been implemented. The SPCC Plan shall only apply while the facility is in a fixed (non-transportation)
operating mode.
(d) No SPCC Plan shall be effective to satisfy the requirements of this part unless it has been reviewed by a
Registered Professional Engineer and certified to by such Professional Engineer. By means of this certification
the engineer, having examined the facility and being familiar with the provisions of this part, shall attest that the
SPCC Plan has been prepared in accordance with good engineering practices. Such certification shall in no way
relieve the owner or operator of an onshore or offshore facility of his duty to prepare and fully implement such
Plan in accordance with Sec. 112.7, as required by paragraphs (a), (b)and (c) of this section.
(e) Owners or operators of a facility for which an SPCC Plan is required pursuant to paragraph(a), (b)or(c) of
this section shall maintain a complete copy of the Plan at such facility if the facility is normally attended at least 8
hours per day, or at the nearest field office if the facility is not so attended, and shall make such Plan available to
the Regional Administrator for on-site review during normal working hours.
(f) Extensions of time.
(1)The Regional Administrator may authorize an extension of time for the preparation and full
implementation of an SPCC Plan beyond the time permitted for the preparation and implementation
of an SPCC Plan pursuant to paragraph (a), (b)or(c)of this section where he finds that the owner
or operator of a facility subject to paragraphs (a), (b)or(c)of this section cannot fully comply with
the requirements of this part as a result of either nonavailability of qualified personnel, or delays in
construction or equipment delivery beyond the control and without the fault of such owner or
operator or their respective agents or employees.
(2)Any owner or operator seeking an extension of time pursuant to paragraph (f)(1) of this section
may submit a letter of request to the Regional Administrator. Such letter shall include:
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Protection of Environment - Oil Pollution Prevention Page 5 of 6
(i)A complete copy of the SPCC Plan, if completed;
(ii)A full explanation of the cause for any such delay and the specific aspects of the
SPCC Plan affected by the delay;
(iii)A full discussion of actions being taken or contemplated to minimize or mitigate
such delay;
(iv)A proposed time schedule for the implementation of any corrective actions being
taken or contemplated, including interim dates for completion of tests or studies,
installation and operation of any necessary equipment or other preventive measures.
In addition,such owner or operator may present additional oral or written statements in
support of his letter of request.
(3)The submission of a letter of request for extension of time pursuant to paragraph (f)(2)of this
section shall in no way relieve the owner or operator from his obligation to comply with the
requirements of Sec. 112.3 (a), (b)or(c). Where an extension of time is authorized by the Regional
Administrator for particular equipment or other specific aspects of the SPCC Plan,such extension
shall in no way affect the owner's or operator's obligation to comply with the requirements of Sec.
112.3 (a), (b) or(c)with respect to other equipment or other specific aspects of the SPCC Plan for
which an extension of time has not been expressly authorized.
[38 FR 34165, Dec. 11, 1973, as amended at 41 FR 12657, Mar. 26, 1976]
Sec. 112.4 Amendment of SPCC Plans by Regional Administrator.
(a) Notwithstanding compliance with Sec. 112.3, whenever a facility subject to Sec. 112.3 (a), (b) or(c) has:
Discharged more than 1,000 U.S. gallons of oil into or upon the navigable waters of the United States or adjoining
shorelines in a single spill event, or discharged oil in harmful quantities, as defined in 40 CFR part 110, into or
upon the navigable waters of the United States or adjoining shorelines in two spill events, reportable under
section 311(b)(5) of the FWPCA, occurring within any twelve month period,the owner or operator of such facility
shall submit to the Regional Administrator,within 60 days from the time such facility becomes subject to this
section,the following:
(1) Name of the facility;
(2)Name(s)of the owner or operator of the facility;
(3) Location of the facility;
(4)Date and year of initial facility operation;
(5)Maximum storage or handling capacity of the facility and normal daily throughput;
(6) Description of the facility, including maps,flow diagrams, and topographical maps;
(7)A complete copy of the SPCC Plan with any amendments;
(8)The cause(s) of such spill, including a failure analysis of system or subsystem in which the
failure occurred;
(9)The corrective actions and/or countermeasures taken, including an adequate description of
equipment repairs and/or replacements;
(10)Additional preventive measures taken or contemplated to minimize the possibility of recurrence;
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Protection of Environment - Oil Pollution Prevention Page 6 of 6
(11) Such other information as the Regional Administrator may reasonably require pertinent to the
Plan or spill event.
(b) Section 112.4 shall not apply until the expiration of the time permitted for the preparation and implementation
of an SPCC Plan pursuant to Sec. 112.3 (a), (b), (c)and (f).
(c)A complete copy of all information provided to the Regional Administrator pursuant to paragraph (a) of this
section shall be sent at the same time to the State agency in charge of water pollution control activities in and for
the State in which the facility is located. Upon receipt of such information such State agency may conduct a
review and make recommendations to the Regional Administrator as to further procedures, methods, equipment
and other requirements for equipment necessary to prevent and to contain discharges of oil from such facility.
(d)After review of the SPCC Plan for a facility subject to paragraph (a)of this section,together with all other
information submitted by the owner or operator of such facility, and by the State agency under paragraph (c)of
this section,the Regional Administrator may require the owner or operator of such facility to amend the SPCC
Plan if he finds that the Plan does not meet the requirements of this part or that the amendment of the Plan is
necessary to prevent and to contain discharges of oil from such facility.
(e)When the Regional Administrator proposes to require an amendment to the SPCC Plan, he shall notify the
facility operator by certified mail addressed to, or by personal delivery to,the facility owner or operator,that he
proposes to require an amendment to the Plan, and shall specify the terms of such amendment. If the facility
owner or operator is a corporation, a copy of such notice shall also be mailed to the registered agent, if any, of
such corporation in the State where such facility is located. Within 30 days from receipt of such notice,the facility
owner or operator may submit written information, views, and arguments on the amendment. After considering all
relevant material presented,the Regional Administrator shall notify the facility owner or operator of any
amendment required or shall rescind the notice.
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Environmental Protection Agency Region 6 South Central S... Page 10 of 20
result in product leakage when oil drains through a corroded coil to discharge into a neart
To control leakage through defective internal heating coils,the following factors should Ix
• The steam return or exhaust lines from intemal heating coils that discharge into an
course should be monitored for contamination or routed to a settling tank,skimmer
separation system to remove oil;
• Consider using external heating coils and insulating the sides of the tank if necessi
Because of the problems encountered with internal steam-heating coils,there has
movement away from their use to more modern external heat-exchanger systems.
Environmental Protection Agency Region 6 South Central Sup... Page 1 of 20
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Superfund--Region 6: South Central
Serving Louisiana,Arkansas,Oklahoma,New Mexico,Texas and 66 Tribes
c;
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Info Bulletins/Fact
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Decision Documents
Overview
File Structure Phase This guide is intended for facilities that transfer oil products to or from tanker trucks, r
Folder Categories vessels,railcars, and pipelines.All facilities that refine, store and distribute oil conduct•
Information operations. Some transfer products in high frequencies and volumes,such as pipeline tra
terminal facilities, marine terminals, refinery marketing facilities, railyards, home heating c
Five Year Reviews lubricating oil distributors, and others involved in the distribution of refined product. This g
discusses the equipment and operating practices needed to meet the requirements of the
Pollution Prevention Regulation in Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations(CFR) Part 112,t
includes the Spill Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) Plan requirements and the Facilit
Brownfields Program Plan(FRP) requirements. The SPCC requirements are the focus of this guide; other guid'
available for facility response planning requirements (40 CFR 112.20 and 112.21)and ger
Response& information on the Oil Pollution Prevention Regulation.
Prevention
Due to the special circumstances for facilities involved in large volume transfer operationE
CERCUS these facilities are subject to muttiagency jurisdictions for oil spill prevention and response
reason,this guide addresses other agency regulatory jurisdictions. For additional informa
NPL List other agency regulatory programs, contact information is provided in this guide.
New NPL Sites Recommended practices for pollution prevention and avoiding discharges of oil are also ii
this guide.These practices may also assist facilities in achieving compliance with the SP(
Pollution Reports requirements and reduce the possibility of product loss and a discharge.
Outreach Guides
A discharge is essentially a spill that reaches a navigable water or adjoining shoreline. 1
definition can be found in 40 CFR 112.2(b).
Key Topics
Regional
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Adminstrator
Mukiagency Jurisdiction
About Region 6
Air
Brownfields Facilities(complexes) may be regulated by more than one agency under the Oil Pollution
(OPA). The EPA is responsible for the nontransportation-related facilities located landwar
Cleanup coastline*. The Department of Interior(DOI)Minerals Management Service (MMS) is rest
Ecosystems offshore nontransportation-related facilities located seaward of the coastline, including ce
Emergencies pipelines. The Department of Transportation (DOT) United States Coast Guard (USCG) c
designated agency is responsible for deepwater ports and fixed offshore facilities. The EF
Employee Directory responsible for facilities in inland lakes and rivers, including certain piping, and coastal an
Employmentlandward of the low water mark.The USCG handles transportation-related offshore faciliti
landward of the coastline,while the DOT, Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS)handles all onsl
Enforcement pipelines. The OPS is a component of the Research and Special Programs Administratiot
Environmental
Justice Facilities conducting large volume tran
FOIA * The term coastline is defined as"the line operations are often regulated by mon
of ordinary low water along that portion regulatory body under OPA based on I
Grants/Procurement of the coast which is in direct contact jurisdictions identified above. In additic
Laboratory with the open sea and the line marking and oil spill prevention programs,facili
Newsroom the seaward limit of inland waters," e.g., also be regulated by the following (this
inclusive): Resource Conservation anc
low tide. Along the Gulf Coast this line
Pesticides Act(RCRA), Title 1 -Underground Ste
has been determined by the courts and (UST) regulations (40 CFR Part 280 ar
Superfund runs along the coastal barrier islands. DOT railcar and tanker truck loading a
Training The jurisdiction over facilities along the unloading requirements in 49 CFR Pai
Waste coastline of the state of Alaska is 174, 177, and 179; DOT OPS regulatit
determined on a case-by-case basis by transportation of hazardous liquids by
Water MMS. 49 CFR Part 195;the DOT USCG regi
more topics.... facilities transferring oil or hazardous r
bulk in 33 CFR Part 154; and the Occt
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requirements for flammable and combustible lic
storage in 29 CFR 1910.106.
Many sites at which oil is transferred in bulk to or from vessels are likely to include both a
transportation-related transfer area regulated by the USCG and a nontransportation-relati
storage area regulated by the EPA.
The division of authority is such that pipelines or hoses leading to and from over-water op
would be regulated by the USCG requirements, for transfers to or from a vessel with a ca
barrels or more,while the terminal and any transfer sites within the terminal would be reg
EPA.The first valve within the secondary containment area constitutes the change in juri:
Similarly, for pipeline terminals,the OPS regulates the transportation-related portion of th,
running to, or from, a fixed facility,while EPA would regulate the terminal and transfer site
facility. Railyards have similar divisions of authority,with the railcars and tracks regulated
operations within the railyard regulated by EPA.
Integrated Contingency Planning
On June 5, 1996,the EPA published a notice in the Federal Register announcing the ava
the National Response Team's (NRT's) Integrated Contingency Plan (ICP)Guidance("on
This guidance is to help owners and operators prepare emergency response plans for the
The one plan provides a mechanism for consolidating multiple response and contingency
facilities may have prepared to manage many regulations in one functional emergency re
The notice contains the suggested ICP outline and guidance on how to develop an ICP ai
demonstrate compliance with the regulatory requirements. The policies set out in this noti
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intended solely as guidance and do not supersede any regulatory requirements. The ICP
cross-referenced to the applicable sections and page numbers of the regulatory requirem
requirements of regulations incorporated into the ICP must be met.
Two components of EPA's Oil Pollution Prevention Regulation may be included as a part
These are the FRP (40 CFR 112.20 and 112.21)and the oil spill contingency plan and
commitment of manpower, equipment,and materials (40 CFR 112.7(d)(1) and (d)(2))
requirements of 40 CFR 112.7(d) must be met by those facilities demonstrating impractia
installation of containment or diversionary structures as required by 40 CFR 112.7(c).
The following regulations contain response or contingency planning requirements that car
addressed through the ICP.The list does not include state and local emergency responsf
requirements. Facilities are encouraged to coordinate the development of ICPs with relev
and local agencies.
EPA's Oil Pollution Prevention Regulation (SPCC and FRP Requirements): 40 CFR 112.;
112.20-112.21.
MMS's Facility Response Plan Regulation: 30 CFR 254.
RSPA's(OPS) Pipeline Response Plan Regulation:49 CFR 194.
EPA's Risk Management Programs Regulation: 40 CFR 68.
OSHA's Emergency Action Plan Rules: 29 CFR 1910.38(a),29 CFR 1926.35.
OSHA's Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER)Standar
1910.120, 29 CFR 1926.65.
EPA's RCRA Contingency Planning Requirements: 40 CFR 264/265 Subpart D and 40 C
USCG's Facility Response Plan Regulation: 33 CFR 154, Subpart F.
Federal Agency Contact Information
EPA's Oil Pollution Prevention Regulation
David Lopez, MS 5203G, U.S. EPA
401 M Street, SW, Washington, DC 20460
(703)603-8707 or
EPCRA/RCRA/Superfund Hotline at(800) 424-9346
U.S. Coast Guard's Facility Response Plan Regulation
LCDR Mark Hamilton, U.S. Coast Guard, Commandant(G-MOR),
2100 2nd Street, SW, Washington, DC 20593,
(202)267-1983 (E-mail M.Hamilton/G-M03@CGSMTP.uscg.mil)
DOT/RSPA's Pipeline Response Plan Regulation
Jim Taylor, U.S. Department of Transportation, Room 2335,
400 7th Street, SW,Washington, DC 20590
(202)366-8860 (E-mail OPATEAM@RSPA.DOT.GOV)
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•
OSHA Regulations
Contact either your Regional or Area OSHA office by calling directory service or the
National Information Line at(800) 326-2577
DOI/MMS Facility Response Plan Regulation
Larry Ake, U.S. Department of the Interior—Minerals Management Service, MS 470(
381 Elden Street, Herndon,VA 22070-4817
(703) 787-1567 (E-mail Larry_Ake@SMTP.MMS.GOV)
EPA's Risk Management Program Regulation
William Finan, U.S. EPA, Mail Code 5101,
401 M Street, SW, Washington, DC 20460,
(202)260-0030(E-mail homepage.ceppo@epamail.epa.gov)
RCRA's Contingency Planning Requirements
Contact the EPCRA/RCRA/Superfund Hotline at(800)424-9346
Applicability of EPA's SPCC Requirements
EPA's SPCC requirements (40 CFR 112.1 through 112.7) apply to nontransportation-rela
that could reasonably be expected to discharge oil into or upon the navigable waters of th
States or adjoining shorelines, and that have (1)a total underground buried storage cape'
than 42,000 gallons; or(2) a total aboveground oil storage capacity of more than 1,320 ga
an aboveground oil storage capacity of more than 660 gallons in a single container.
Some facilities may not be regulated if,due to their location,they could not reasonably be
discharge oil into navigable waters of the U.S. or adjoining shorelines. SPCC-regulated fa
also comply with other federal, state, or local laws,some of which may be more stringent.
Many facilities involved with high volume product transfers associated with pipelines and
vessels are also subject to the Facility Response Plan (FRP) requirements of 40 CFR 11:
requirements can be found at 40 CFR 112.20, 112.21 and associated Appendices A-F.
As outlined in 40 CFR 112.20(0(1), a facility has the potential to cause substantial harm a
therefore, must prepare an FRP if:
• The facility transfers oil over water to or from vessels and has a total oil storage ca
including both aboveground storage tanks(ASTs) and underground storage tanks
greater than or equal to 42,000 gallons; or
• The facility's total oil storage capacity, including both ASTs and USTs, is greater th
to one million gallons, and one of the following is true:
• The facility lacks secondary containment that is able to contain the capacity of the
within each storage area plus freeboard to allow for precipitation;
• The facility is located at a distance such that a discharge from the facility could cat
an environmentally sensitive area;
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• The facility is located at a distance such that a discharge from the facility would shi
public drinking-water intake; or
• The facility has had a reportable spill greater than or equal to 10,000 gallons within
years.
All facilities must document the determination of substantial harm by completing the "Cert
the Applicability of the Substantial Harm Criteria Checklist," provided as Attachment C-II i
C of 40 CFR 112. This certification should be kept with the facility's SPCC Plan.
SPCC and Specific Spill Prevention Requirem(
SPCC: Preparation and Certification [40 CFR 112.3]
The owner or operator of an SPCC-subject facility is required to have a written site-specif
prevention plan, which details how a facility's operations comply with the requirements of
112.
Requirements for specific elements to be included in the SPCC Plan are found in 40 CFR
SPCC Plan must be reviewed and certified by a Registered Professional Engineer who is
SPCC and has examined the facility.To be in compliance,the facility's SPCC Plan must t
the applicable requirements for drainage, bulk storage tanks,tank car and truck loading a
unloading,transfer operations (intrafacility piping), inspections and records, security, and
Most importantly,the facility must fully implement the SPCC Plan. Newly constructed fad
facilities that make modifications must prepare or revise their SPCC Plan within six mono
Modifications may include, for example, changes in piping arrangements or installation or
tanks.
Containment and Diversionary Structures [40 CFR 112.7(c)]
SPCC requires containment of drainage from the operating areas of a facility to prevent o
contaminated runoff from reaching storm drains, streams (perennial or intermittent), ditchi
bays, and other navigable waters.
Secondary containment and diversionary structures should be in place to contain oil-cone
drainage (e.g., rainwater) or leaks around fuel dispensers, pipelines, valves,joints,transit
connections, and tanks. For these purposes, facilities should use dikes, berms, curbing, c
gutters,trenches, absorbent material, retention ponds,weirs, booms, and other bafflers o
preventive systems. SPCC requirements are performance-based,which permits facility of
operators to substitute alternative forms of spill containment if the substitute provides sub
equivalent protection against discharges to navigable waters to that provided by the syste
40 CFR 112.7(c).
Substantially equivalent containment systems may be possible for AST systems (e.g., sm
walled ASTs equipped with spill prevention devices)that generally have capacities of les:
12,000 gallons.Alternative containment systems may not be appropriate for tank systems
12,000 gallons or for systems that consist of several tanks connected by manifolds or oth'
arrangements that would permit a volume of oil greater than the capacity of one tank to bi
a result of a single system failure.
Facilities conducting transfer operations may have spills that could be released to watery✓
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means other than direct overland flow. For example, if a terminal does not have adequate
diking to prevent spills from oil transfer operations,then a release may reach a storm drai
empties into a navigable waterway. Many transfer operations utilize drip pans or drains ur
connections which may route spills to an oil-water separator or onsite wastewater treatme
Trained personnel must inspect the effluent prior to discharging so these systems must bi
controlled. Systems which automatically discharge to a storm drain,sewer or other offsite
not in compliance with the regulations.An automatic system is not acceptable because if
overloaded, a malfunction and a discharge of oil is likely to happen.
Facility Drainage [40 CFR 112.7(e)(1)]
Diked Areas
Facilities most often use poured concrete walls or earthen berms to contain drainage and
secondary containment for storage tanks and curbing and catchment basins for truck
loading/unloading areas. These contained areas are considered diked areas. Concrete at
dike containment structures around storage tanks may accumulate significant amounts of
Drain lines, which must be watertight, are usually installed through the dike walls and are
drain accumulated storrnwater from the diked area. These lines should be fitted with vatic
positive means of closure that are normally sealed closed and locked to prevent any oil di
from escaping the diked area. These valves must be open-close manual valves; flapper v
not acceptable.
These valves must be opened to drain rainwater and resealec
drainage by trained and authorized facility personnel only. Add
records must be kept of such drainage events (i.e., date,time
names) and made part of the SPCC Plan. The accumulated n
must be examined and determined to be free of oil contamina
dai 6/ /' diked areas are drained. If any oil sheen or accumulation of of
r observed, an alternate method of draining the diked area mus
employed. The contaminated water may be diverted to an one
treatment plant or oil-water separator; however,the adequacy
systems is determined on a case-by-case basis for each one's adherence to good engine
practices and ability to retain a spill in the event of a system malfunction.
Facilities may employ many different types and designs of drainage control systems and •
separators. Facilities must implement a system that is consistent with good engineering p
based on the size and complexity of their operations.
The secondary containment structure must be impervious and must prevent water and fun
percolating through the soil, contaminating the soil and groundwater and possibly surfacir
aboveground into navigable waters or adjoining shorelines.
Undiked Areas
Other operating areas that do not have secondary containment systems specifically desig
those areas (otherwise referred to as"localized containment') are considered undiked arc
Drainage must be controlled for undiked areas which may include truck or engine washdc
piping and manifold areas,garage bays, and fuel islands.All undiked areas can be desigi
control drainage through a combination of curbing,trenches, catchment basins, and reten
as necessary to retain a spill. These structures must be inspected and examined for integ
effectiveness. For example, if a paved area is improperly graded or if a curb is deterioratii
contaminated water may escape from the facility. For this reason, a Professional Enginee
certify the SPCC Plan to ensure that the drainage system is adequately designed and prc
maintained in accordance with good engineering practices.
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Whatever techniques are used,the facility's drainage systems should be adequately engi
prevent oil from reaching navigable waters in the event of equipment failure or human err
facility.
Oil Storage: Bulk Storage Tanks, Portable Tanks, Drums,and Oil-Containing Equips
CFR 112.7(e)(2)]
Many types of units are used to store oil products. Storage containers or tanks may be lot
aboveground, underground, partially underground, and inside buildings.
Tank Material
No tank should be used for the storage of oil unless its construction material is compatible
material stored and conditions of storage such as pressure, physical and chemical proper
temperatures.
It is recommended that the construction, materials, installation, and use of tanks conform
relevant portions of industry standards,such as American Petroleum Institute (API), Natic
Protection Association (NFPA), Underwriters Laboratory (UL), or American Society of Me.
Engineers (ASME),which may be required in the application of good engineering practice
or local regulations.
Secondary Containment
All storage containers(e.g.,tanks, oil-water separators) must have secondary cantalnmei
entire contents of the largest single container within the containment area, plus sufficient
allow for precipitation.An alternative system could consist of a complete drainage trench
arranged so that a spill could terminate and be safely confined in a catchment basin. The
structure must be sufficiently impervious to the types of oil products stored at a facility. Dil
should be free of pooled oil;spills should be removed promptly.
The volume of freeboard should be based on regional rainfall patte
Facilities in states with large amounts of rainfall (e.g., Washington,
1. Hawaii, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico)will require seconc
4 containment to accommodate greater amounts of water.
taw Precipitation data is available from the National Oceanic and Atma
Administration's (NOAA) National Climatic Data Center(NCDC). TI
can be reached by telephone at(704) 271-4800 and at
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/climate on the worldwide web.
The following table describes the most common secondary containment systems.
�I
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Secondary Containment Systems
Type of System Description
Poured Concrete Walls Poured concrete walls are strong,fairly watertight, and resi:
petroleum penetration if adequately designed and maintain.
according to good engineering practices.
Limitations:
• conventional concrete is not totally impervious to pet
any spill left inside a containment area may eventual
penetrate the concrete and could contaminate groun
sources. Therefore, spills inside diked areas should I
up as soon as possible.
• the expansion and contraction of piping which runs t
containment walls create potential areas of weaknes
• grouting in expansion joints requires maintenance to
weak points,which may allow petroleum penetration
Containment Curbs Containment curbs are similar to speed bumps and are ofte
where vehicles need to access the containment area.
Limitations:
• they fill up with rainwater more rapidly than higher cc
areas; and
• they can be worn down as a result of vehicle crossin
Containment Pits or trenches are belowgrade containment structures,wt
Pits/Trenches be covered with metal grates and lined with concrete.
Limitations:
• earthen structures have the potential for groundwate
contamination unless constructed with appropriate n
• if pits and trenches are not properly supported,they
quickly; and
• they pose a danger since people can fall into them if
not properly maintained.
Earthen Berms Earthen berms containing clay or bentonite mixtures are co
used at very large oil storage facilities.
Limitations:
• earthen berms are subject to water and wind erosior
require frequent rebuilding;
• sandy soil does not effectively contain oil spills;grou
contamination may result. Impervious liners of clay c
membranes may be required to contain oil spills; anc
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• vegetation inside bermed areas is a fire hazard and
the operators ability to detect spills or defective equi
addition,the root systems of plants, such as trees, sl
bushes, could degrade the berm and promote leakat
Concrete Block Walls Concrete block walls are also commonly used for containm
Limitations:
• settling eventually separates or cracks the blocks an
the integrity of the wall.
• concrete blocks are very porous therefore they do nc
liquid-tight seals between mortared joints.
• water and ice penetrate the blocks and eventually br
apart due to the different phases of water.
Tank Integrity -Inspections and Testing
ASTs should be properly maintained to prevent oil leaking from bolts, gaskets, rivets, sea
other part of the tank.The older riveted or bolted steel tanks tend to "weep"oil from rivets
Personnel should note visible oil leaks on an inspection form and report them to the pery
of spill prevention. Leaks should be repaired immediately. In some cases,the product in t
require removal.
Another area of concern for ASTs is tank bottom deterioration. Tank bottoms may be subj
extensive corrosion,which may not be evident during visual inspections. Measures must I
prevent this corrosion based on the type of tank installation and tank foundation.Corrosio
can be provided by dielectric coatings and carefully engineered cathodic protection. Soft
have installed double-bottom tanks to reduce the corrosion factor.
Corrosion of a tank's surface may also result in tank failure. Corrosion that is concentrate'
areas of a tank's surface or"pitting"creates a high potential for tank failure. If tanks are n.
may form causing the tank to leak. Tank supports and foundations should also be inspect
cracks, crumbling, deterioration, and seepage.
ASTs should be subjected to periodic integrity testing. Some of the accepted methods for
the following:
• X-ray or radiographic analysis measures wall thickness and detects cracks and cre
metal.
• Ultrasonic analysis measures shell metal thickness.
• Hydrostatic testing shows leaks caused by pressure.
• Visual inspection detects some cracks, leaks, or holes.
• Magnetic flux eddy current test used in conjunction with ultrasonic analysis detects
Internal Heating Coils
Internal steam-heating coils are sometimes used in heavy oil tanks to maintain the oil in a
viscous state in cold weather. The deterioration of the steam-heating coils from internal a
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